void ab initio definition

Latin, From the beginning; from the first act; from the inception.] An agreement is said to be "void ab initio" if it has at no time had any legal validity. A party may be said to be a trespasser, an estate said to be good, an agreement or deed said to be void, or a marriage or act said to be unlawful, ab initio. Contrasted in this sense with ex post facto, or with postea.

The illegality of the conduct or the revelation of the real facts makes the entire situation illegal ab initio (from the beginning), not just from the time the wrongful behavior occurs. A person who enters property under the authority of law but who then by misconduct abuses his or her right to be on the property is considered a trespasser ab initio. If a sheriff enters property under the authority of a court order requiring him to seize a valuable painting, but instead he takes an expensive marble sculpture, he would be a trespasser from the beginning. Since the officer abused his authority, a court would presume that he intended from the outset to use that authority as a cloak from under which to enter the property for a wrongful purpose. This theory, used to correct abuses by public officers, has largely fallen into disuse.

We enter into contracts so many times in a day that ‘contract’ has become an indispensable part of our life. When you purchase milk or newspaper in the morning or go to movie in the evening, you are entering into a contract. Indian Contract Act really codifies the way we enter into a contract, execute a contract, implement provisions of a contract and effects of breach of a contract. Basically, a person is free to contract on any terms he chooses. The Contract Act consists of limiting factors subject to which contract may be entered into, executed and breach enforced. It only provides a framework of rules and regulations which govern formation and performance of contract. The rights and duties of parties and terms of agreement are decided by the contracting parties themselves. The court of law acts to enforce agreement, in case of non-performance.

Section 1 of Contract Act provides that any usage or custom or trade or any incident of contract is not affected as long as it is not inconsistent with provisions of the Act. In other words, provision of Contract Act will prevail over any usage or custom or trade. However, any usage, custom or trade will be valid as long as it is not inconsistent with provisions of Contract Act. The Act extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir; and came into effect on 1-9-1872.

It must be noted that contract need not be in writing, unless there is specific provision in law that the contract should be in writing. [e.g. * contract for sale of immovable property must be in writing, stamped and registered. * Contracts which need registration should be in writing * Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note must be in writing. * Trust should be created in writing * Promise to pay a time barred loan should be in writing, as per Limitation Act * Contract made without consideration on account of natural love and affection should be in writing ]. A verbal contract is equally enforceable, if it can be proved.. A contract can be enforced or compensation/damages for breach of contract can be obtained through Civil Court

Essential Ingredients of a contract - As per Contract Act, an agreement enforceable by law is a contract. [section 2(h)]. Hence, we have to understand first what is ‘agreement’.

Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement. [section 2(e)]. - - A person makes a proposal (offer). When it is accepted by other, it becomes a promise. However, promise cannot be one sided. Only a mutual promise forming consideration for each other is ‘agreement’. - - For example, A agrees to pay Rs 100 to B and B agrees to give him a book which is priced at Rs 100. This is set of promises which form consideration for each other. However, if A agrees to pay Rs 100 to B, but B does not promise anything, it is not ‘set of promises forming consideration for each other’ and hence not an agreement.

It should be noted that the term ‘agreement’ as defined in Contract Act requires mutual consideration. - - Thus, if A invites B to dinner and B agrees to come, it is not an ‘agreement’ as defined in Contract Act.

Meaning of ‘Proposal’ - When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal. [section 2(a)].- - Thus, a ‘proposal’ can be to do a positive act or abstinence from act (i.e. negative act). [English Act uses the word ‘offer’, while Indian Contract Act uses the word ‘proposal’. Generally, both words are used inter-changeably. This is not technically correct, as the word ‘offer’ is not used in Contract Act].

Meaning of ‘Promise’ - When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A pro­posal, when accepted, becomes a promise. [section 2(b)]. - - Thus, when a proposal (offer) is accepted, it becomes a ‘promise’. As is clear from the definition, only person to whom proposal is made can signify his assent. Other person cannot accept a proposal.

Promisor and promisee - The person making the proposal is called the “promisor”, and the person accepting the proposal is called the “promisee”. [section 2(c)].

Reciprocal promises - Promises which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other are called reciprocal promises. [section 2(f)].

Consideration for promise – The definition of ‘agreement’ itself states that the mutual promises should form consideration of each other. Thus, ‘consideration’ is essential for an agreement. A promise without consideration is not ‘agreement’ and hence naturally, it is not a ‘contract’.

Definition of ‘consideration’ - When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consid­eration for the promise. [section 2(d)].

Steps involved in contract - The steps involved in the contract are – * proposal and its communication * acceptance of proposal and its communication * Agreement by mutual promises * Contract * Performance of Contract. - - All agreements are not contract. Only those agreements which are enforceable by law are ‘contracts’. Following are essential requirements of a valid contract.

Offer and its acceptance

Free consent of both parties

Mutual and lawful consideration for agreement

It should be enforceable by law. Hence, intention should be to create legal relationship. Agreements of social or domestic nature are not contracts

Parties should be competent to contract

Object should be lawful

Certainty and possibility of performance

Contract should not have been declared as void under Contract Act or any other law


Communication, acceptance and revocation of proposals - Communication of proposal/ revocation/acceptance are vital to decide validity of a contract. A ‘communication’ is complete only when other party receives it.

Acceptance must be absolute - In order to convert a proposal into a promise, the acceptance must - (1) be absolute and unqualified; (2) be expressed in some usual and reasonable manner, unless the proposal prescribed the manner in which it is to be accepted. If the proposal prescribes a manner in which it is to be accepted, and the acceptance is not made in such a manner, the proposer may, within a reasonable time after the acceptance is communicated to him, insist that his proposal shall be accepted in the prescribed manner, and not otherwise; but if he fails to do so, he accepts the acceptance. [section 7].

Acceptance of offer is complete only when it is absolute and unconditional. Conditional acceptance or qualified acceptance is no acceptance.

Promises, express or implied - Insofar as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be express. Insofar as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the prom­ise is said to be implied. [section 9]. - - For example, if a person enters a bus, there is implied promise that he will pay the bus fair.

Voidable Contract - An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract. [section 2(i)]. - - (a) When consent is obtained by coercion, undue influence, misrepresentation or fraud is voidable at the option of aggrieved party i.e. party whose consent was obtained by coercion/fraud etc. However, other party cannot avoid the contract. (b) When a contract contains reciprocal promises and one party to contract prevents the other from performing his promise, the contract becomes voidable at the option of the party to prevented. (section 53). Obvious principle is that a person cannot take advantage of his own wrong (c) When time is essence of contract and party fails to perform in time, it is voidable at the option of other party (section 55). A person who himself delayed the contract cannot avoid the contract on account of (his own) delay.

Void contract - A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law be­comes void when it ceases to be enforceable. [section 2(j)]. - - Thus, initially a contract cannot be void, i.e. a contract cannot be void ab initio. The simple reason is that in such a case, it is not a contract at all to begin with. Hence, only a valid contract can become void contract due to some subsequent events. e.g. the person dies or property is destroyed or Government imposes a ban etc. - - A void agreement is void ab initio. It never becomes a contract. It is nullity and cannot create any legal rights.

What agreements are contracts - All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful considera­tion and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. Nothing herein contained shall effect any law in force in India and not hereby expressly repealed, by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of documents. [section 10].

Who are competent to contract - Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. [section 11].

Free consent – Consent of both parties must be free. Consent obtained through coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake is not a ‘free consent’. - - Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the same thing in the same sense. [section 13]. - - Consent is said to be free when it is not caused by - (1) coercion, as defined in section 15, or (2) undue influence, as defined in section 16, or (3) fraud, as defined in section 17, or (4) misrepresentation, as defined in section 18, or (5) mistake, subject to the provisions of sections 20, 21 and 22. - - Consent is said to be so caused when it would not have been given but for the existence of such coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake. [section 14].

Void agreements - An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void. [section 2(g)]. - - Note that it is not ‘void contract’, as an agreement which is not enforceable by law does not become ‘contract’ at all. Following are void agreements - * Both parties under mistake of fact (section 20) * Unlawful object or consideration (section 24) * Agreement without consideration (section 25) * Agreement in restraint of marriage (section 26) * Agreement in restraint of trade (section 27) * Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings (section 28) * Uncertain agreement (section 29) * Wagering agreement (section 29) * Agreement to do an impossible Act (section 56). - - These are discussed below.

Obligation of person who has received advantage under void agree­ment or contract that becomes void - When an agreement is discovered to be void, or when a con­tract becomes void, any person who has received any advantage under such agreement or contract is bound to restore it, or to make compensation for it, to the person from whom he received it.

Contingent contract - A “contingent contract” is a contract to do or not to do something, if some event, collateral to such contract, does or does not happen. Illustration - A contracts to pay B Rs. 10,000 if B’s house is burnt. This is a contingent contract. [section 31].

Contracts which must be performed - The parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective promises, unless such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of this Act, or of any other law. Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promisors before performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract. - - Illustrations - (a) A promises to deliver goods to B on a certain day on payment of Rs. 1,000. A dies before that day. A’s representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is bound to pay Rs. 1,000 to A’s representatives. (b) A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a certain price. A dies before the day. The contract cannot be enforced either by A’s representative or by B [section 37]. The performance can be ‘actual performance’ or ‘attempted performance’, i.e. ‘offer to perform’.

Performance of reciprocal promises - Promises which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other are called reciprocal promises. [section 2(f)]. A mutual promise can be of following types – (a) Mutual and independent – Where each party must perform his promise independently and irrespective of whether the other party has performed or willing to perform e.g. Seller agrees to deliver on 5th and Buyer agrees to pay on 15th. (b) Conditional and dependent – Performance of promise by one party depends on prior performance of promise by other party. e.g. Buyer agrees to pay for goods 15 days after delivery. Hence, unless seller delivers goods, buyer’s liability does not arise. (c) Mutual and concurrent – Where the promises of both parties must be performed simultaneously. e.g. buyer agrees to pay immediately on delivery of goods i.e. cash payment.

Contracts which need not be performed - Normally, a contract is expected to be performed. The performance my be actual or by way of tender, i.e. attempted performance. However, in certain situations as stated below, the contract need not be performed. * Novation, rescission and alteration of contract * Promisee may dispense with or remit performance of promise * Effect of neglect of promisee to afford promisor reasonable facilities for performance * Merger of superior rights with inferior right under contract. This is usually termed as ‘discharge of contract’.

Quasi Contracts - ‘Quasi’ means ‘almost’ or ‘apparently but not really’ or ‘as if it were’. This term is used when one subject resembles another in certain characteristics but there are intrinsic differences between the two. ‘Quasi contract’ is not a ‘contract’. It is an obligation which law created in absence of any agreement. It is based on equity. There are certain relations resembling those created by contract. These are termed as ‘quasi contracts’. These are – (a) Supply of necessaries (section 68) (b) Payment of lawful dues by interested person (section 69) (c) Person enjoying benefit of a gratuitous act (section 70) (d) Finder of goods (section 71) (d) Goods or anything delivered by mistake or coercion (section 72).

Consequences of Breach of Contract - Compensation is payable for breach of contract. Penalty is also payable if provided in contract. Breach of contract may be actual or anticipatory.

Summary of principles of compensation and damages - Following points are important - * Compensation for loss or damage is payable. Since the word used is ‘compensation’, punitive damages cannot be awarded. * These should be in usual course or known to parties i.e. both parties must be aware * No compensation for remote and indirect loss or damage * Same principle applies to quasi contract also.

General damages – General damages are those which result from ‘direct and proximate’ consequences from breach of contract. Normally, what can be awarded is compensation for loss or damage which can be directly or proximately attributed to the breach of contract. One way of assessing damages is the difference between the contract price and the market price on date of breach of contract, plus reasonable expenses incurred by him on account of the breach plus cost of suit in court of law.

Consequential loss or special damage – Special damages or consequential damages arise due to existence of special circumstances. Such damages can be awarded only in cases where the special circumstances were foreseeable by the party committing the breach or were specifically known to the party. Consequential losses like loss of profit due to breach, which may occur indirectly due to breach cannot be normally awarded unless there are special circumstances which parties were aware. Loss of profit can be awarded only in cases where seller could have foreseen those losses and arose directly as result of breach.

Promisee should take steps to mitigate the loss or damage – Explanation to section 73 specifically provides that in estimating loss or damage, the means available for remedying the inconvenience caused by breach of contract shall be taken into account. Thus, promisee should take all reasonable steps to mitigate the losses e.g. if promisor does not supply goods, he should make efforts to procure from alternate sources may be even at higher price, to reduce his losses arising out of breach of contract.

Vindictive or exemplary damages – Vindictive or exemplary damages cannot be awarded under Contract Act. However, these may be awarded by Court under tort under special circumstances e.g. * Dishonour of cheque by Bank when there was balance in account, as it causes loss of reputation of credit worthiness of person issuing cheque * Breach of contract to marry, as it hurts both feelings and reputation.

Quantum Meruit – ‘Quantum meruit’ means ‘as much as earned’. A contract may come to end by * breach of contract * contract becoming void or * Voidable contract avoided by party. In such case, if a party has executed part of contract, he is entitled to get a proportionate amount i.e. ‘as much as earned by him’. This is not by way of ‘damages’ or ‘compensation for loss’. - - The principle is that even when contract comes to a premature end, the party should get amount proportional to the work done/services provided/goods supplied by one party. One party should not get enriched at the cost of other.

Contract of indemnity - A contract by which one party promises to save the other from loss caused to him by the conduct of the promisor himself, or by the conduct of any other person, is called a ‘contract of indem­nity’. - - Illustration - A contracts to indemnify B against the consequences of any proceedings which C may take against B in respect of a certain sum of 200 rupees. This is a contract of indemnity. [section 124].

Contract of guarantee - A “contract of guarantee” is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the liability, of a third person in case of his default. The person who gives the guarantee is called the “surety”; the person in respect of whose default the guarantee is given is called the “principal debtor”, and the person to whom the guarantee is given is called the “creditor”. A guarantee may be either oral or written. [section 126]. - - [Person giving guarantee is also called as ‘guarantor’. However, Contract Act uses the word ‘surety’ which is same as ‘guarantor’]. - - Three parties are involved in contract of guarantee. Contract between any two of them is not a ‘contract of guarantee’. It may be contract of indemnity. Primary liability is of the principal debtor. Liability of surety is secondary and arises when Principal Debtor fails to fulfill his commitments. However, this is so when surety gives guarantee at the request of principal debtor. If the surety gives guarantee on his own, then it will be contract of indemnity. In such case, surety has all primary liabilities.

Consideration for guarantee - Anything done, or any promise made, for the benefit of the principal debtor, may be sufficient consideration to the surety for giving the guarantee. - - Illustrations - (a) B requests A to sell and deliver to him goods on cred­it. A agrees to do so, provided C will guarantee the payment of the price of the goods. C promises to guarantee the payment in consideration of A’s promise to deliver the goods. This is sufficient consideration for C’s promise. (b) A selms and delivers goods to B. C afterwards requests A to gorbear to sue B for the debt for a year, and promises that if xe does so,`C will pay for them in default of payment by B. A agrees to forbear as requested. This is a sufficient considera­tion for C’s promise. (c) A sells and delivers goods to B. C afterwards, without consideration, agrees to pay for them in default of B. The agree­ment is void. [section 127].

Bailment - Bailment is another type of special contract. Since it is a ‘contract’, naturally all basic requirements of contract are applicable. - - Bailment means act of delivering goods for a specified purpose on trust. The goods are to be returned after the purpose is over. In bailment, possession of goods is transferred, but property i.e. ownership is not transferred. A “bailment” is the delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose, upon a contract that they shall, when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise disposed of according to the directions of the person delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called the “bailor”. The person to whom they are delivered is called the “bailee”. - - Explanation : If a person already in possession of the goods of another, contracts to hold them as a bailee, he thereby becomes the bailee, and owner becomes the bailor, of such goods, although they may not have been delivered by way of bailment. [section 148]. [Thus, initial possession of goods may be for other purpose, and subsequently, it may be converted into a contract of bailment, e.g. seller of goods will become bailee if goods continue in his possession after sale is complete].

Bailment can be only of ‘goods’. As per section 2(7) of Sale of Goods Act, ‘goods’ means every kind of movable property other than money and actionable claim. - - Thus, keeping money in bank account is not ‘bailment’. Asking a person to look after your house or farm during your absence is not ‘bailment’, as house or farm is not a movable property.

Bailment of pledges - Pledge is special kind of bailment, where delivery of goods is for purpose of security for payment of a debt or performance of a promise. Pledge is bailment for security. Common example is keeping gold with bank/money lender to obtain loan. Since pledge is bailment, all provisions applicable to bailment apply to pledge also. In addition, some specific provisions apply to pledge. The bailment of goods as security for payment of a debt or performance of a promise is called “pledge”. The bailor is in this case called the “pawnor”. The bailee is called the “pawnee”. [section 172].

Contract of Agency - Agency is a special type of contract. The concept of agency was developed as one man cannot possibly do every transaction himself. Hence, he should have opportunity or facility to transact business through others like an agent. The principles of contract of agency are – (a) Excepting matters of a personal nature, what a person can do himself, he can also do it through agent (e.g. a person cannot marry through an agent, as it is a matter of personal nature) (b) A person acting through an agent is acting himself, i.e. act of agent is act of Principal. - - Since agency is a contract, all usual requirements of a valid contract are applicable to agency contract also, except to the extent excluded in the Act. One important distinction is that as per section 185, no consideration is necessary to create an agency.

Agent and principal defined - An “agent” is a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another in dealings with third persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called the “principal” [section 182].

Who may employ agent - Any person who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, may employ an agent. [section 183]. - - Thus, any person competent to contract can appoint an agent.

Who may be an agent - As between the principal and third persons any person may become an agent, but no person who is not of the age of majority and of sound mind can become an agent, so as to be responsible to his principal according to the provisions in that behalf herein contained. [section 184]. - - The significance is that a Principal can appoint a minor or person of unsound mind as agent. In such case, the Principal will be responsible to third parties. However, the agent, who is a minor or of unsound mind, cannot be responsible to Principal. Thus, Principal will be liable to third parties for acts done by Agent, but agent will not be responsible to Principal for his (i.e. Agent’s) acts.

Consideration not necessary - No consideration is necessary to create an agency. [section 185]. Thus, payment of agency commission is not essential to hold appointment of Agent as valid.

Authority of agent – An agent can act on behalf of Principal and can bind the Principal.

Agent’s duty to Principal - An agent has following duties towards principal. * Conducting principal’s business as per his directions * Carry out work with normal skill and diligence * Render proper accounts [section 213]. * Agent’s duty to communicate with principal [section 214] * Not to deal on his own account, in business of agency [section 215]. * Agent’s duty to pay sums received for principal [section 218] * Agent’s duty on termination of agency by principal’s death or insanity - [section 209].

Remuneration to Agent - Consideration is not necessary for creation of agency. However, if there is an agreement, an agent is entitled to get remuneration as per contract.

Rights of Principal - * Recover damages from agent if he disregards directions of Principal * Obtain accounts from Agent * Recover moneys collected by Agent on behalf of Principal * Obtain details of secret profit made by agent and recover it from him * Forfeit remuneration of Agent if he misconducts the business.

Duties of Principal - * Pay remuneration to agent as agreed * Indemnify agent for lawful acts done by him as agent * Indemnify Agent for all acts done by him in good faith * Indemnify agent if he suffers loss due to neglect or lack of skill of Principal.

Termination of Agency - An agency is terminated by the principal revoking his au­thority; or by the agent renouncing the business of the agency; or by the business of the agency being completed; or by either the principal or agent dying or becoming of unsound mind; or by the principal being adjudicated an insolvent under the provisions of any Act for the time being in force for the relief of insol­vent debtors. [section 201]. - - In following cases, an agency cannot be revoked – * Agency coupled with interest (section 202) * Agent has already exercised his authority (section 203) * Agent has incurred personal liability.


The Indian Partnership Act was passed in 1932 to define and amend the law relating to partnership. Indian Partnership Act is one of very old mercantile law. Partnership is one of the special types of Contract. Initially, this was part of Indian Contract Act itself (Chapter IX - sections 239 to 266), but later converted into separate Act in 1932.

The Indian Partnership Act is complimentary to Contract Act. Basic provisions of Contract Act apply to contract of partnership also. Basic requirements of contract i.e. legally enforceable agreement, mutual consent, parties competent to contract, free consent, lawful object, consideration etc. apply to partnership contract also.

Partnership Contract is a ‘concurrent subject’ - ‘Contract, including partnership contract’ is a ‘concurrent subject, covered in Entry 7 of List III (Seventh Schedule to Constitution). Indian Partnership Act is a Central Act, but State Government can also pass legislation on this issue. Though Partnership Act is a Central Act, it is administered by State Governments, i.e. work of registration of firms and related matters is looked after by each State Government. The Act is not applicable to Jammu and Kashmir.

Unlimited liability is major disadvantage - The major disadvantage of partnership is the unlimited liability of partners for the debts and liabilities of the firm. Any partner can bind the firm and the firm is liable for all liabilities incurred by any firm on behalf of the firm. If property of partnership firm is insufficient to meet liabilities, personal property of any partner can be attached to pay the debts of the firm.

Partnership Firm is not a legal entity - It may be surprising but true that a Partnership Firm is not a legal entity. It has limited identity for purpose of tax law. As per section 4 of Indian Partnership Act, 1932, 'partnership' is the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any one of them acting for all. - - Under partnership law, a partnership firm is not a legal entity, but only consists of individual partners for the time being. It is not a distinct legal entity apart from the partners constituting it - Malabar Fisheries Co. v. CIT (1979) 120 ITR 49 = 2 Taxman 409 (SC).

Firm legal entity for purpose of taxation - For tax law, income-tax as well as sales tax, partnership firm is a legal entity - State of Punjab v. Jullender Vegetables Syndicate - 1966 (17) STC 326 (SC) * CIT v. A W Figgies - AIR 1953 SC 455 * CIT v. G Parthasarthy Naidu (1999) 236 ITR 350 = 104 Taxman 197 (SC). Though a partnership firm is not a juristic person, Civil Procedure Code enables the partners of a partnership firm to sue or to be sued in the name of the firm. - Ashok Transport Agency v. Awadhesh Kumar 1998(5) SCALE 730 (SC). [A partnership firm can sue only if it is registered].

Partnership, partner, firm and firm name - “Partnership” is the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of business carried on by all or any to them acting for all. - - Persons who have entered into partnership with one another are called individually “partners” and collectively “a firm”, and the name under which their business is carried on is called the “firm name”. [section 4].

“Business” includes every trade, occupation and profes­sion. [section 2(b)]. Thus, a ‘partnership’ can be formed only with intention to share profits of business. People coming together for some social or philanthropic or religious purposes do not constitute ‘partnership’.

Partners are Mutual agents - The business of firm can be carried on by all or any of them for all. Any partner has authority to bind the firm. Act of any one partner is binding on all the partners. Thus, each partner is ‘agent’ of all the remaining partners. Hence, partners are ‘mutual agents’.

Oral or written agreement - As per normal provision of contract, a ‘partnership’ agreement can be either oral or written. - - Agreement in writing is necessary to get the firm registered. Similarly, written agreement is required, if the firm wants to be assessed as ‘partnership firm’ under Income Tax Act. A written agreement is advisable to establish existence of partnership and to prove rights and liabilities of each partner, as it is difficult to prove an oral agreement. - - However, written agreement is not essential under Indian Partnership Act.

Sharing of profit necessary - The partners must come together to share profits. Thus, if one member gets only fixed remuneration (irrespective of profits) or one who gets only interest and no profit share at all, is not a ‘partner’. - - Similarly, sharing of receipts or collections (without any relation to profits earned) is not ‘sharing of profit’ and the association is not ‘partnership’. For example, agreement to share rents collected or percentage of tickets sold is not ‘partnership’, as sharing of profits is not involved. - - The share need not be in proportion to funds contributed by each partner. - - Interestingly, though sharing of profit is essential, sharing of losses is not an essential condition for partnership . - - Similarly, contribution of capital is not essential to become partner of a firm.

Number of partners - Since partnership is ‘agreement’ there must be minimum two partners. The Partnership Act does not put any restrictions on maximum number of partners. However, section 11 of Companies Act prohibits partnership consisting of more than 20 members, unless it is registered as a company or formed in pursuance of some other law.

Mode of determining existence of partnership - In determining whether a group of persons is or is not a firm, or whether a person is or is not a partner in a firm, regard shall be had to the real relation between the parties, as shown by all relevant facts taken together. [section 6].

Mutual agency is the real test - The real test of ‘partnership firm’ is ‘mutual agency’, i.e. whether a partner can bind the firm by his act, i.e. whether he can act as agent of all other partners.

Partnership at will - Where no provision is made by contract between the partners for the duration of their partnership, or for the determination of their partnership, the partnership is “partnership at will”. [section 7]. - - Partnership ‘at will’ means any partner can dissolve a firm by giving notice to other partners (or he may express his intention to retire from partnership) - - Partnership deed may provide about duration of partnership (say 10 years) or how partnership will be brought to end. In absence of any such term, the partnership is ‘at will’. - - In case of ‘particular partnership’, the partnership comes to end when the venture for which it was formed comes to end.

Determination of rights and duties of partners by contract be­tween the partners - Subject to the provisions of this Act, the mutual rights and duties of the partners of a firm may be determined by con­tract between the partners, and such contract may be express or may be implied by a course of dealing. - - Such contract may be varied by consent of all the partners, and such consent may be express or may be implied by a course of dealing. [section 11(1)]. - - Thus, partners are free to determine the mutual rights and duties by contract. Such contract may be in writing or it may be implied by their actions.

Dutiesand mutual rights of partners - Subject to contract to contrary, partners have duties and mutual rights as specified in Partnership Act-

Every partner has right to take part in business - Subject to contract between partners (to the contrary), every partner has right to take part in the conduct of the business. [section 12(a)]. - - Thus, every partner has equal right to take active part in business, unless there is specific contract to the contrary. Even if authority of a partner is restricted by contract, outside party is not likely to be aware of such restriction. In such case, if such partner acts within the apparent authority, the firm will be liable for his acts.

The property of the firm - Subject to contract between the partners, the property of the firm includes all property and rights and interests in property originally brought into the stock of the firm, or acquired, by purchase or otherwise, by or for the firm, or for the purposes and in the course of the business of the firm, and includes also the goodwill of the business. - - Unless the contrary intention appears, property and rights and interests in property acquired with money belonging to the firm are deemed to have been acquired for the firm [section 14].

Partner to be agent of the firm - Subject to the provisions of this Act, a partner is the agent of the firm for the purposes of the business of the firm. [section 18].

Implied authority of partner as agent of the firm - Subject to the provisions of section 22, the act of a partner which is done to carry on, in the usual way, business of the kind carried on by the firm, binds the firm. The authority of a partner to bind the firm conferred by this section is called his “implied authority”. [section 19(1)]. -

Partners jointly and severally liable acts of the firm - Every partner is liable, jointly with all the other partners and also severally, for all acts of the firm done while he is a part­ner. [section 25]. ‘An act of a firm’ means any act or omission by all the partners, or by any partner or agent of the firm which gives rise to a right enforceable by or against the firm [section 2(a)]. ‘Joint and several’ means each partner is liable for all acts. Thus, if amount due cannot be recovered from other partners, any one partner will be liable for payment of entire dues of the firm.

Partner by Holding out - ‘Holding out’ means giving impression that a person is partner though he is not. This is principle of ‘estoppel’. If a person gives an impression to outsiders that he is partner of firm though he is not partner, he will he held liable as partner, if third party deals with the firm on the impression that he is a partner. Similarly, if a person retires from the firm but does not give notice of retirement, he will be liable as a partner, if some third party deals with the firm on the assumption that he is still partner.

Minors admitted to the benefits of partnership - A person who is a minor according to the law to which he is subject may not be a partner in a firm, but, with the consent of all the partners for the time being, he may be admitted to the benefits of partnership. [section 30(1)].

Rights of minor - Minor (who is admitted to benefit of partnership) has a right to such share of the property and of the profits of the firm as may be agreed upon and he may have access to and inspect and copy any of the accounts of the firm. [section 30(2)]. [Since the word used is ‘may’, it seems that right of minor to inspect accounts can be restricted by agreement among partners].

Minor’s share liable but not minor himself - Such minor’s share is liable for the acts of the firm, but the minor is not personally liable for any such act. [section 30(3)].

Reconstitution of a Partnership Firm - A partnership firm is not a legal entity. It has no perpetual existence as in case of a company incorporated under Companies Act. However, the Act gives the partnership limited rights of continuity of business despite change of partners. In absence of specific provision in partnership deed, death or insolvency of a partner means dissolution of the firm. However, partnership can provide that the firm will not dissolve in such case.

Change in partners may occur due to various reasons like death, retirement, admission of new member, expulsion, insolvency, transfer of interest by partner etc. After such change, the rights and liabilities of each partner are determined afresh. This is termed as reconstitution of a firm.

Dissolution of a Firm - A partnership firm is an ‘organisation’ and like every ‘organ’ it has to either grow or perish. Thus, dissolution of a firm is inevitable part in the life of partnership firm some time or the other.

Dissolution of a firm without intervention of Court can be (a) By agreement (section 40) (b) Compulsory dissolution in case of insolvency (section 41) (c) Dissolution on happening of certain contingency (section 42) (d) By notice if partnership is at will (section 43).

A firm can also be dissolved by Court u/s 44.

Dissolution of partnership and dissolution of firm - The dissolution of partnership between all the partners of a firm is called the dissolution of the firm. [section 39]. - - . As per section 4, Partnership is the relation between persons who have agreed to share profits of business carried on by all or any of them acting for all. - - Thus, if some partner is changed/added/ goes out, the ‘relation’ between them changes and hence ‘partnership’ is dissolved, but the ‘firm’ continues. Hence, the change is termed as ‘reconstitution of firm’. However, complete breakage between relations of all partners is termed as ‘dissolution of firm’. After such dissolution, the firm no more exists. Thus, ‘Dissolution of partnership’ is different from ‘dissolution of firm’. ‘Dissolution of partnership’ is only reconstruction of firm, while ‘dissolution of firm’ means the firm no more exists after dissolution.

Mode of dissolution of firm - Following are various modes of dissolution of firm. * Dissolution by agreement - [section 40]. * Compulsory dissolution in case of insolvency - [section 41] * Dissolution on the happening on certain contingencies [section 42] * Dissolution by notice of partnership at will [section 43(2)] * Dissolution by the court

Consequences of dissolution of firm - After firm is dissolved, business is wound up and proceeds are distributed among partners. The Act specifies what are the consequences of dissolution of a firm.

Sale of goodwill of firm after dissolution - Business is attracted due to reputation of a firm. It creates a ‘brand image’ which is valuable though not tangible. ‘Goodwill’ is the value of reputation of the business of the firm. Goodwill of a firm is sold after dissolution either separately or along with property of firm. - - As per section 14, property of partnership firm includes goodwill of the firm. - - Goodwill is the reputation and connections which the firm establishes over time, together with circumstances which make the connections durable. This reputation enable to earn profits more than normal profits which a similar business would have earned. Goodwill is an intangible asset of the firm. - -

In settling the accounts of a firm after dissolution, the goodwill shall, subject to contract between the partners, be included in the assets, and it may be sold either separately or along with other property of the firm. [section 55(1)].

Settlement of accounts after dissolution - Accounts are settled after a firm is dissolved as provided in the Act. A firm is said to be ‘wound up’ only after accounts are fully settled.

Registration of Firms - Registration of firm is not compulsory, though usually done as registration brings many advantages to the firm. Since ‘partnership contract’ is a ‘Concurrent Subject’ as per Constitution of India, registration of firms and related work is handled by State Government in each State. Section 71 authorises State Government to make rules for * prescribing fees for filing documents with registrar * prescribing forms of various statements and intimations are to be made to registrar and * regulating procedures in the office of Registrar.

Partner cannot sue if firm is unregistered - No suit to enforce a right arising from a contract or conferred by this Act shall be instituted in any court by or on behalf of any person suing as a partner in a firm against the firm or an{ person alleged to be or to`have been a Ápartner in the fir} unless the firm is registered and the person suing!is or has been shown iø the Register of Firms as a partner in the firm.$ [section 69(1)]. - - Thus, a partner cannot sue the firm or any otheÄ ” partner if firm is unregistered. - - If third party files suit against a partner, he cannot claim of set off or institute other proceeding to enforce a right arising from a contract. - - Suit or claim or set off upto Rs 100 can be made as per section 69(4)(b), but it is negligible in today’s standards. - - Criminal proceedings can be filed, but civil suit is not permissible.

Unregistered Firm cannot sue third party - No suit to enforce a right arising from a contract shall be instituted in any Court by or on behalf of a firm against any third party unless the firm is registered and the persons suing are or have been shown in the Register of Firms as partners in the firm. [section 69(2)]. - - If third party files suit against the unregistered firm, the firm cannot claim set off or institute other proceeding to enforce a right arising from a contract. - - Suit or claim or set off upto Rs 100 can be made as per section 69(4)(b), but it is negligible in today’s standards. - - Criminal proceedings can be filed, but civil suit is not permissible.


The basic purpose of Indian Stamp Act, 1899 is to raise revenue to Government. However, over a period of time, the stamped document has obtained so much value that a ‘stamped document’ is considered much more authentic and reliable than an un-stamped document.

Power of Parliament in respect of stamp duty - Parliament can make law in respect of Stamp Duty. It can prescribe rates of stamp duty. The stamp duty rates prescribed by Parliament in respect of bill of exchange, cheques, transfer of shares etc. will prevail all over India. However, other stamp duty rates prescribed by Parliament in Indian Stamp Act, 1899 (e.g. stamp duty on agreements, affidavit, articles of association of a company, partnership deed, lease deed, mortgage, power of attorney, security bond etc.) are valid only for Union territories. In case of States, the rates prescribed by individual States will prevail in those States.

Powers of State Government of Stamp Duty - State Government has powers to fix stamp duties on all documents except bill of exchange, cheques etc. Rates prescribed by State Government will prevail in that State. State Government can make law for other aspects of stamp duty also (i.e. matters other than quantum of duty). However, if there is conflict between State law and Union law, the Union law prevails [Article 254 of Constitution].

Instruments chargeable to stamp duty - Instrument includes every document by which any right or liability, is, or purported to be created, transferred, limited, extended, extinguished or recorded [section 2(17) of Indian Stamp Act]. Any instrument mentioned in Schedule I to Indian Stamp Act is chargeable to duty as prescribed in the schedule [section 3]. The list includes all usual instruments like affidavit, lease, memorandum and articles of company, bill of exchange, bond, mortgage, conveyance, receipt, debenture, share, insurance policy, partnership deed, proxy, shares etc. Thus, if an instrument is not listed in the schedule, no stamp duty is payable. ‘Instrument’ does not include ordinary letters. Similarly, an unsigned draft of an agreement is not an ‘instrument’.

Duty payable when several instruments - In case of sale, mortgage or settlement, if there are several instruments for one transaction, stamp duty is payable only on one instrument. On other instruments, nominal stamp duty of Re. 1 is payable [section 4(1)]. If one instrument relates to several distinct matters, stamp duty payable is aggregate amount of stamp duties payable on separate instruments [section 5]. However, it may happen that one instrument covering only one matter can come under more than one descriptions given in Schedule to Stamp Act. In such case, highest rate specified among the different heads will prevail [section 6].

Powers to reduce stamp duty - Government can reduce or remit whole or part of duties payable. Such reduction or remission can be in respect of whole or part of territories and also can be for particular class of persons. Government can also compound or consolidate duties in case of issue of shares or debentures by companies [section 9(1)]. ‘Government’ means Central Government in respect of stamp duties on bills of exchange, cheque, receipts etc. and ‘State Government’ in case of stamp duties on other documents [section 9(2)].

Mode of payment of stamp duty - The payment of stamp duty can be made by adhesive stamps or impressed stamps. Instrument executed in India must be stamped before or at the time of execution (section 17). Instrument executed out of India can be stamped within three months after it is first received in India [section 18(1)]. However, in case of bill of exchange or promissory note made out of India, it should be stamped by first holder in India before he presents for payment or endorses or negotiates in India [section 19].

Valuation for stamp duty - In some cases, stamp duty is payable on ad valorem basis i.e. on basis of value of property etc. In such cases, value is decided on prescribed basis.

Adjudication as to stamp duty payable - Adjudication means determining the duty payable. Normally, the person paying the duty himself may decide the stamp duty payable and pay accordingly. However, in cases of complex documents, the person paying the duty may not be sure of the stamp duty payable. In such case, he can apply for opinion of Collector. He has to apply with draft document and prescribed fees. Collector will determine the stamp duty payable as per his judgment [section 31(1)].

What is meant by ‘duly stamped’ - ‘Duly stamped’ means that the instrument bears an adhesive or impressed stamp not less than proper amount and that such stamp has been affixed or used in accordance with law in force in India [section 2(11)]. In case of adhesive stamps, the stamps have to be effectively cancelled so that they cannot be used again. Similarly, impressed stamps have to be written in such a way that it cannot be used for other instrument and stamp appears on face of instrument. If stamp is not so used, the instrument is treated as ‘un-stamped’. Similarly, when stamp duty paid is not adequate, the document is treated as ‘not duly stamped’.

Instrument cannot be accepted as evidence if not duly stamped - An instrument not ‘duly stamped’ cannot be accepted as evidence by civil court, an arbitrator or any other authority authorised to receive evidence. However, the document can be accepted as evidence in criminal court.

Case when short payment is by mistake - If non-payment or short payment of stamp duty is by accident, mistake or urgent necessity, the person can himself produce the document to Collector within one year. In such case, Collector may receive the amount and endorse the document that proper duty has been paid [section 41].

Stamp duty on Receipt - Stamp Duty on receipt is Re. 1 for receipt above Rs. 5,000. Receipt includes any note, memorandum or writing [whether signed by any person or not] (a) where any money, or any bill of exchange or promissory note is acknowledged to have been received or (b) where any other movable property is acknowledged to have been received in satisfaction of a debt or (c) whereby any debt or demand is acknowledged to have been satisfied or discharged or (d) which signifies or indicates any such acknowledgment [section 2(23)].

Stamp duty on transfer of shares in a company or body corporate - It is 50 Paise for every hundred rupees or part thereof of the value of share. [It is 75 Ps as per Article 62 of Schedule I to Stamp Act, reduced to 50 Ps per Rs 100 vide notification No. SO 198(E) dated 16.3.1976]. As per section 21, the duty has to be calculated on the basis of market price prevalent on date of instrument and not on the face value of shares.

Stamp Duty on transfer in Depository Scheme - If the company issues securities to one or more depositories, it will have to pay stamp duty on total amount of security issued by it and such securities need not be stamped. [section 8A(a) of Stamp Act]. If an investor opts out of depository scheme, the securities surrendered to Depository will be issued to him in form of a certificate. Such share certificate should be stamped as if a 'duplicate certificate’ has been issued. [section 8A(1)(b) of Indian Stamp Act]. If securities are purchased or sold under depository scheme, no stamp duty is payable.

Trust and trustees is a concurrent subject [Entry 10 of List III of Seventh Schedule to Constitution]. - - Thus, the Act will apply all over India except when specifically amended / altered by any State Government.

The Indian Trusts Act was passed in 1882 to define law relating to private trusts and trustees.

A trust is not a 'legal person'. Property of trust is held in name of trustee for benefit of beneficiary.

What is a trust - A trust is an obligation annexed to the ownership of property and arising out of a confidence reposed in and accepted by the owner, or declared and accepted by him, for the benefit of another, or of another and the owner. [section 3 para 1]. The person who reposes the confidence is called 'author of trust' (testator), the person who accepts the confidence is called 'trustee' and the person for whose benefit the confidence is accepted is 'beneficiary'. The subject matter of trust is called 'trust property' or ‘trust-money. The ‘beneficial interest’ or ‘interest of the beneficiary’ is his right against the trustee as the owner of trust-property. The instrument by which trust is declared is called as ‘instrument of trust’. [section 3 para 2].

Thus, when a property is held by one person as trustee for the benefit of another, it can be regarded as a trust. Trusts are governed by Indian Trust Act, as may be modified by State Governments.

A trust can be created for any lawful purpose. [section 4]. A trust can be created by deed, will or even word of mouth. However, trust of immovable property can be created only by non-testamentary instrument signed by author of trust and is registered, or by will of author. [section 5]. Thus, ‘will’ is not required to be registered, even if it pertains to immovable property.

Duties of trustees - Trustee is not bound to accept the trust. [section 10]. However, once accepted, he cannot renounce it except permission of civil court or beneficiary (if he is major) or by virtue of special power in the instrument of trust. [section 46]. - Once trustee accepts trust, he is bound to fulfil the purpose of trust and to obey directions given at the time of creation of the trust. It can be modified with consent of beneficiary. [section 11]. His duties are - * Inform himself of state of trust property (section12) * Protect title to trust property (section 13) * Not to set up title adverse to beneficiary (section 14) * Take care of property as a man of ordinary prudence would deal with such property as own property (section 15) Conversion of perishable property to permanent and immediately profitable character (section 16) * To be impartial (section 17) * To prevent waste (section 18) * Keep proper accounts and information (section 19) and * Invest trust-money in prescribed securities and not others (section 20). - - Trustee is liable for breach of trust. [section 23]. ‘Breach of trust’ means a breach of duty imposed on a trustee, as such, by any law for the time being in force. [section 3 para 3].

Rights and Powers of trustee – Trustee has following powers - * Rights to title deed (section 31) * Right to reimbursement of expenses (section 32) * Right to indemnify from gainer by breach of trust (section 33) * Right to apply to court for opinion on management of trust property (section 34) * Right to settlement of accounts (section 35) * All acts necessary and reasonable and proper for trust property or protection of beneficiary (section 36). * Power to covey property when he is authorised to sell (section 39) * Power to vary investments (from one security to another (section 40) * Power to apply property of minors for their maintenance (section 41) * Power to give receipts (section 42) * Power to compound or compromise (section 43).

Rights and liabilities of beneficiary – The beneficiary has * rights to rent and profits (section 55) * Right to specific execution of intention of author of trust (section 56) * Right to inspect and take copies of instrument of trust, accounts etc. (section 57) * Right to transfer beneficial interest (section 58) * Right to sue for execution of trust (section 59) * Right to proper trustees (section 60) * Right to compel trustee to perform an act of duty * Follow trust property into hands of third persson and into which it has been converted (section 63). - - A beneficiary is liable if he joins in breach of trust. [section 68].

Revocation of trust - A trust created by will can be revoked at the pleasure of testator. A trust created otherwise by will can be revoked (a) by consent of all beneficiaries if they are competent to contract (b) In exercise of power of revocation expressly reserved by author of trust, if the trust has been declared by a non-testatory instrument or by word of mouth or (c) At pleasure of author of trust, if the trust is for payment of debts and the author of trust has not communicated to the creditors. [section 78].


New communication systems and digital technology have made dramatic changes in way of transacting business. Use of computers to create, transmit and store information is increasing. Computer has many advantages in e-commerce. It is difficult to shift business from paper to electronic form due to two legal hurdles - (a) Requirements as to writing and (b) Signature for legal recognition. Many legal provisions assume paper based records and documents and signature on paper.

The General Assembly of the United Nations by resolution dated the 30th January, 1997 adopted the Model Law on Electronic Commerce and recommended that all States should give favourable consideration to the Model Law when they enact or revise their laws.

The Information Technology Act has been passed to give effect to the UN resolution and to promote efficient delivery of Government services by means of reliable electronic records.

As per preamble to the Act, the purpose of Act is (a) to provide legal recognition for transactions carried out by means of electronic data interchange and other means of electronic communication, commonly referred to as "electronic commerce", which involve the use of alternatives to paper-based methods of communication and storage of information and (b) to facilitate electronic filing of documents with the Government agencies. - - The Act came into effect on 17.10.2000.

The Act does not apply to — (a) a negotiable instrument as defined in section 13 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, except cheque (b) a power-of-attorney as defined in section 1A of the Powers-of-Attorney Act (c) a trust as defined in section 3 of the Indian Trusts Act(d) a will as defined in section 2(h) of the Indian Succession Act, including any other testamentary disposition by whatever name called (e) any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property (f) any such class of documents or transactions as may be notified by the Central Government in the Official Gazette. - - Broadly, documents which are required to be stamped are kept out of the provisions of the Act.

Overview of the Act - The Act provides for - * Electronic contracts will be legally valid * Legal recognition of digital signatures * Digital signature to be effected by use of asymmetric crypto system and hash function * Security procedure for electronic records and digital signature * Appointment of Certifying Authorities and Controller of Certifying Authorities, including recognition of foreign Certifying Authorities * Controller to act as repository of all digital signature certificates * Certifying authorities to get License to issue digital signature certificates * Various types of computer crimes defined and stringent penalties provided under the Act * Appointment of Adjudicating Officer for holding inquiries under the Act * Establishment of Cyber Appellate Tribunal under the Act * Appeal from order of Adjudicating Officer to Cyber Appellate Tribunal and not to any Civil Court * Appeal from order of Cyber Appellate Tribunal to High Court * Act to apply for offences or contraventions committed outside India * Network service providers not to be liable in certain cases * Power of police officers and other officers to enter into any public place and search and arrest without warrant * Constitution of Cyber Regulations Advisory Committee who will advice the Central Government and Controller

What does IT Act enable? - The Information Technology Act enables:* Legal recognition to Electronic Transaction / Record * Facilitate Electronic Communication by means of reliable electronic record * Acceptance of contract expressed by electronic means * Facilitate Electronic Commerce and Electronic Data interchange * Electronic Governance * Facilitate electronic filing of documents * Retention of documents in electronic form * Where the law requires the signature, digital signature satisfy the requirement * Uniformity of rules, regulations and standards regarding the authentication and integrity of electronic records or documents * Publication of official gazette in the electronic form * Interception of any message transmitted in the electronic or encrypted form * Prevent Computer Crime, forged electronic records, international alteration of electronic records fraud, forgery or falsification in Electronic Commerce and electronic transaction.

Digital signature - Any subscriber may authenticate an electronic record by affixing his digital signature. [section 3(1)]. “Subscriber" means a person in whose name the Digital Signature Certificate is issued. [section 2(1)(zg)]. "Digital Signature Certificate" means a Digital Signature Certificate issued under section 35(4) [section 2(1)(q)].

"Digital signature" means authentication of any electronic record by a subscriber by means of an electronic method or procedure in accordance with the provisions of section 3. [section 2(1)(p)].

"Affixing digital signature" with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions means adoption of any methodology or procedure by a person for the purpose of authenticating an electronic record by means of digital signature. [section 2(1)(d)].

Authentication of records - The authentication of the electronic record shall be effected by the use of asymmetric crypto system and hash function which envelop and transform the initial electronic record into another electronic record. [section 3(2)].

Verification of digital signature - Any person by the use of a public key of the subscriber can verify the electronic record. [section 3(3)]. The private key and the public key are unique to the subscriber and constitute a functioning key pair. [section 3(4)].

The idea is similar to locker key in a bank. You have your ‘private key’ while bank manager has ‘public key’. The locker does not open unless both the keys come together match.

Electronic records acceptable unless specific provision to contrary - Where any law provides that information or any other matter shall be in writing or in the typewritten or printed form, then, notwithstanding anything contained in such law, such requirement shall be deemed to have been satisfied if such information or matter is - (a) rendered or made available in an electronic form; and (b) accessible so as to be usable for a subsequent reference. [section 4]. - - Unless there is specific provision in law to contrary, electric record or electronic return is acceptable. - - Soon, it will be possible to submit applications, income tax returns and other returns through internet.

Department or ministry cannot be compelled to accept electronic record - Section 8 makes it clear that no department or ministry can be compelled to accept application, return or any communication in electronic form.

Legal recognition of digital signatures - Where any law provides that information or any other matter shall be authenticated by affixing the signature or any document shall be signed or bear the signature of any person then, notwithstanding anything contained in such law, such requirement shall be deemed to have been satisfied, if such information or matter is authenticated by means of digital signature affixed in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government. - - "Signed", with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, shall, with reference to a person, mean affixing of his hand written signature or any mark on any document and the expression "signature" shall be construed accordingly. [section 5].

Secure digital signature - If, by application of a security procedure agreed to by the parties concerned, it can be verified that a digital signature, at the time it was affixed, was - (a) unique to the subscriber affixing it (b) capable of identifying such subscriber (c) created in a manner or using a means under the exclusive control of the subscriber and is linked to the electronic record to which it relates in such a manner that if the electronic record was altered the digital signature would be invalidated, - - then such digital signature shall be deemed to be a secure digital signature. [section 15].

Certifying digital signature - The digital signature will be certified by ‘Certifying Authority’. The ‘certified authority’ will be licensed, supervised and controlled by ‘Controller of Certifying Authorities’.


It is for general welfare that a period be put on litigation. Further, it is a general principle of law that law is made to protect only diligent and vigilant people. Equity aids the vigilant and not the indolent. Law will not protect people who are careless about their rights. (Vigilantibus non domientibus jur A subventiunt). Moreover, there should be certainty in law and matters cannot be kept in suspense indefinably. It is, therefore, provided that Courts of Law cannot be approached beyond fixed period. In civil matters, the limit is provided in Limitation Act, 1963.

Bar of limitation – Subject to provisions of sections 4 to 24 of the Act (i.e. Limitation Act),every suit instituted, appeal preferred and application made after the ‘prescribed period’ shall be dismissed, although limitation has not been set up as a defence. [section 3(1)]. - - ‘Period of limitation’ means the period of limitation prescribed for any suit, appeal or application by the schedule to the Act and ‘prescribed period’ means the period of limitation computed as per provisions of the Act. [section 2(j)].

Period as prescribed in Schedule to the Act – The period has been prescribed in Schedule to the Act. Generally, it is as follows – (a) 3 years for a suit relating to accounts, contracts, declarations, decrees, suits relating to movable property, recovery of law suit under a contract etc. (b) 12 years for suits relating to possession of immovable property and 30 years for mortgaged property (c) One year for suit relating to torts (3 years for compensation in certain cases (d) 30 to 90 days in case of appeals under Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code. - - Period of filing appeal and application can be extended if proper cause is shown (but not the suit) [section 5].

If court is closed on last day – If court is closed on last day of limitation, suit, appeal or application can be filed on next day when Court reopens. [section 4].

Continuous running of time – When once period of limitation starts running, it continues even if there is any subsequent disability or inability to institute a suit or make an application. [section 9]. - - However, if at the time when person is entitled to file a suit or make application, if a person was disabled (as he was minor or insane), the period of limitation will start after the disability is removed. [section 6(1)].

In case of appeals against any judgment, if limitation is provided in any statute, that will prevail.

Computation of period of limitation – (a) First day or day of judgment is to be excluded. [section 12(1)]. (b) Time for getting copy of judgment or decree or order or award (against which appeal or application has to be filed is to be excluded. [section 12(3)]. (c) Time when leave to sue or appeal as pauper is applied for and is pending [section 13]. (d) Time spent (by mistake or misunderstanding) in proceeding bona fide in the Court without jurisdiction [section 14]. (e) If stay or injunction was granted, that period will be excluded. [section 15(1)]. (f) If consent/sanction of Government or some authority was required to be obtained for filing suit/application or notice was required to be given to Government in accordance with law, the period spent in obtaining the consent/sanction or time in giving notice is excluded. [section 15(2)].

Effect of fraud or mistake – Period of limitation starts only after fraud or mistake is discovered by affected party. [section 17(1)]. In Vidarbha Veneer Industries Ltd. v. UOI - 1992 (58) ELT 435 (Bom HC) , it was held that limitation starts from the date of knowledge of mistake of law. It may be even 100 years from date of payment. - - - - The cardinal principal enshrined in section 17 of Limitation Act is that fraud nullifies everything. Thus, appeal against the party can be admitted beyond limitation, if party has committed fraud (in submitting non-genuine documents at adjudication in this case) – CC v. Candid Enterprises 2001(130) ELT 404 (SC 3 member bench).

Effect of acknowledgment in writing – If acknowledgment of any property is right or liability is obtained in writing duly signed by the party against whom such property, right or liability is claimed, before the expiration of period of limitation, a fresh period of limitation is computed from date of acknowledgment. [section 18(1)], Acknowledgment can be signed either personally or by an agent duty authorised in this behalf. [section 18(2)]. [That is why Banks and Financial Institutions insist on confirmation of balance every year].

Continuing breaches and torts – In case of continuous breaches and torts, a fresh period of limitation begins to run at every moment of time during which the breach or tort continues. [section 22].

Limitation is a question of law and can be raised at any stage i.e. even at the time of appeal.

Law of limitation only bars remedy, but does not extinguish the right - In Bombay Dyeing and Mfg Co. Ltd. v. State of Bombay AIR 1958 SC 328 = 1958 SCR 1122 (SC Constitution Bench), it was held that the law of limitation only bars the remedy of approaching the court of law. However, it does not extinguish the right as such.

Law of Limitation is applicable only to courts and not to tribunals. - Nityanand M Joshi v. LIC - AIR 1970 SC 209 = (1970) 1 SCR 396 = 36 FJR 324 (SC) * Sakura v. Tanaji - AIR 1985 SC 1279 * Birla Cement Works v. G M Western Railway (1995) 2 JT 59 (SC).

Limitation in criminal matters - As per section 468 of Cr PC, Court cannot take cognizance of offence after expiry of following limitation period - (a) Six months, if the offence is punishable only with fine (b) One year, if the offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year (c) three years, if the offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years. However, in case of economic offences, there is no time limit

Since ‘Cooperative Societies’ is a State Subject (Entry 32 of List II of Seventh Schedule to Constitution, i.e. State List), the cooperative societies formed under State Acts have to restrict their activities to only one State. This hinders growth of cooperative societies. Hence, Multi State Cooperative Societies Act was passed in 1942. It was later replaced by 1984 Act. This 1984 Act is now being replaced by 2002 Act. The 2002 Act has already been passed but has not yet been made effective. The 2002 Act makes special provision for registration and functions of Federal Cooperative Societies.

Object of the Act – As per preamble to the Act, the Act is consolidate and amend the law relating to cooperative societies, with objects not confined to one State and serving the interests of members in more than one State, to facilitate the voluntary formation and democratic functioning of cooperatives as people’s institutions based on self-help and mutual aid and to enable them to promote their economic and social betterment and to provide financial autonomy and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto.

Multi-State Cooperative Society can be formed under Multi State Cooperative Societies Act. Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002 has received President’s assent. The Act will supersede 1984 Act when brought into force. Under the Act, there will be a Central Registrar overseeing and regulating multi-state cooperative societies. Under the Act, a quasi-judicial authority titled the Cooperative Disputes Settlement Authority will be set up to replace existing system of such settlement by Central Registrar. This is intended to ensure quicker and more judicious settlement of disputes.

The Act applies to all cooperative societies with objects not confined to one State. It includes societies which were incorporated under Cooperative Societies Act 1912 & earlier Muti-Cooperative Societies formed under 1942 or 1984 Act.

Which society can be registered - No multi-state cooperative society can be registered under the Act unless - (a) its main objects are to serve interests of members in more than one State and (b) Its bye-laws provide for social and economic betterment of its members through self-help and mutual aid in accordance with the cooperative principles. [section 5(1)]. The word ‘limited’ or its equivalent in any Indian language shall be affixed to the name of every multi-State cooperative society registered under the Act with limited liability. [section 5(2)].

Cooperative Principles - Cooperatives work on basic concept of ‘mutual assistance’ and ‘one man one vote’. - - The bye-laws of multi-state cooperative society should provide for cooperative principles, as given in First Schedule to the Act.

Society is a body corporate - Every multi-state cooperative society is a body corporate with name under which it is registered. It will have common seal and perpetual succession. It can acquire and dispose of property (movable as well as immovable), enter into contracts, institute and defend suits by the name it which it is registered. [section 9(1)].

Federal Cooperative - ‘Federal Cooperative’ means a federation of cooperative societies registered under this Act and whose membership is available only to a cooperative society or a multi-state cooperative society. [section 3(k)].

Registration of multi-state cooperative society - Central Government will appoint a Central Registrar of Cooperative Societies. He will register the multi-state cooperative society. [section 4(1)]. Some of his powers can be delegated to other officers of Central or State Government, but powers of registration cannot be delegated. Powers in relation to a national cooperative society cannot be delegated to State Government. [section 4(2)].

Bye-laws of society - Each multi-state cooperative society must have bye-laws for its internal management. The ‘bye-laws’ are comparable to ‘Articles of Association of a company’.

Conversion, amalgamation or division of society - The Act makes provisions for conversion, amalgamation etc. in certain cases.

Duties, rights and liabilities of members - Cooperative Principle is based on the concept of mutual assistance. Hence, provisions have been made for rights, duties and liabilities of members.

Duty of every member - It is duty of every member of multi-state cooperative society to promote and protect interests and objects of the society. [section 25(5)].

Voting by members - Every member, including member who is employee shall have one vote, irrespective of his shareholding. An employee is not entitled to vote in respect of elections to members of board or amendment to bye-laws. Chairperson will have casting vote in case of equality. If person other than individual are members (e.g. Government, other cooperative society, NCDC etc.) voting power to its nominee will be one vote only. [section 31].

No voting by proxy - Voting must be done in person. Proxy is not permitted. A multi-state cooperative society or cooperative society which is a member can appoint its representative to vote on its behalf. [section 32].

Management of Society - Management of a multi-state cooperative society will be a three tier structure. General body will consist of all members. A smaller body consisting of delegates of members can be formed and some powers can be delegated to the small body. They will elect Board of Directors to exercise overall control over operations. Day to day control will be exercised by ‘Chief Executive’ who will be employee of the multi-state cooperative society.

Chairperson/President of society - A multi-state cooperative society can have Chairperson/President and Vice Chairperson/Vice President. [It appears that his election will be made by Board of Directors]. A person who is Minister in central or State Government cannot be elected to the post. - - A person can be elected as Chairperson/President only for two consecutive terms, full or part. However, after a gap of one full term, he can again be elected as Chairperson/President. [section 44]. - - Each full term is of five years.

Office bearer only in two societies - A person can be Chairperson/President or Vice Chairperson/Vice President of at the most two multi-state cooperative societies at a time. [section 46].

Election of directors - Election of directors will be responsibility of existing Board. [section 45(1)]. Only a person who is member of society can contest elections. [section 45(7)]. Elections will be held at the time of general meeting and by secret ballot. Elected members are eligible for re-election, if bye-laws permit. Term of elected members shall be five years at a time. However, the Board will continue till successors are elected or nominated as per provisions of the Act and bye-laws. [section 45(5)]. If Board does not hold elections, same will be held by Central Registrar. [section 45(6)].

Powers and functions of Board - The Board of Directors may exercise all powers as may be necessary to carry out its functions under the Act. [section 49(1)].

Chief Executive - Each multi-state cooperative society will have Chief Executive (by whatever name called).he will be full time employee. Chief Executive will be appointed by Board. [section 51(1)]. He will be member of Board and of executive committee and other committees of Board. [section 51(2)]. - - If Central/State Government holds 51% or more equity capital of multi-state cooperative society, his salary and service conditions will be as prescribed by rules. [section 51(3)].

Privileges of multi-state cooperative society - Certain privileges are granted to multi-state cooperative society so that it can function effectively.

Winding up of society - Winding up can be ordered by Central Registrar after audit, inquiry or inspection, after giving opportunity of hearing to society. [section 86(1)]. Winding up can also be ordered if number of members fall below 50 or where society has ceased to function or has not commenced business within 6 months. [section 86(2)]. Cooperative Bank cannot be wound up without previous sanction of RBI. [section 86(5)]. Cooperative Bank will be wound up if RBI so directs. [section 87].
The Negotiable Instruments Act was passed in 1881. Some provisions of the Act have become redundant due to passage of time, change in methods of doing business and technology changes. However, the basic principles of the Act are still valid and the Act has stood test of time. The Act extends to the whole of India. There is no doubt that the Act is to regulate commercial transactions and was drafted to suit requirements of business conditions then prevailing.

The instrument is mainly an instrument of credit readily convertible into money and easily passable from one hand to another.

Local usage prevails unless excluded - The Act does not affect any local usage relating to any instrument in an oriental language. However, the local usage can be excluded by any words in the body of the instrument, which indicate an intention that the legal relations of the parties will be governed by provisions of Negotiable Instruments Act and not by local usage. [section 1].

Thus, unless specifically excluded, local usage prevails, if the instrument is in regional language.

Bill of exchange and promissory notes excluded from information Technology Act - Section (1)(4)(a) of Information Technology Act provides that the Act will not apply to Bill of Exchange and Promissory Notes. Thus, a Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note cannot be made by electronic means. However, cheque is covered under of Information Technology Act and hence can be made and / or sent by electronic means.

Changes made by Amendment Act, 2002 - (a) Definition of ‘cheque’ and related provisions in respect of cheque amended to facilitate electronic submission and/or electronic clearance of cheque. Corresponding changes were also made in Information Technology Act. (b) Bouncing of cheque - Provisions amended * Provision for imprisonment upto 2 years against present one year * Period for issuing notice to drawer increased from 15 days to 30 days * Government Nominee Directors excluded from liability * Court empowered to take cognizance of offence even if complaint filed beyond one month * Summary trial procedure permitted for imposing punishment upto one year and fine even exceeding Rs 5,000 * Summons can be issued by speed post or courier service * Summons refused will be deemed to have been served * Evidence of complainant through affidavit permitted * Bank’s slip or memo indicating dishonour of cheque will be prima facie evidence unless contrary proved * Offence can be compounded. - - The amendments have been made effective from 6-2-2003.

Transferee can get better title than transferor – Normal principle is that a person cannot transfer better title to property that he himself has. For example, if a person steals a car and sells the same, the buyer does not get any legal title to the car as the transferor himself had no title to the car. The real owner of car can anytime obtain possession from the buyer, even if the buyer had purchased the car in good faith and even if he had no idea that the seller had no title to the car. This provision is no doubt sound, but would make free negotiability of instrument difficult, as it would be difficult to verify title of transferor in many cases. Hence, it is provided that if a person acquires ‘Negotiable Instrument’ in good faith and without knowledge of defect in title of the transferor, the transferee can get better title to the negotiable instrument, even if the title of transferor was defective. This is really to ensure free negotiability of instrument so that persons can deal in the instrument without any fear.

Difference between negotiation and transfer/assignment - Difference between “Negotiation’ and assignment/transfer is that in case of negotiation, the transferee can get title better than transferor, which can never happen in assignment/transfer.

Statutory definition of Negotiable instrument - A “negotiable instrument” means a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque payable either to order or to bearer. Explanation (i) : A promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque is payable to order which is expressed to be so payable or which is expressed to be payable to a particular person, and does not contain words prohibiting transfer or indicating an intention that it shall not be transferable. Explanation (ii) : A promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque is payable to bearer which is expressed to be so payable or on which the only or last endorsement is an endorsement in blank. Explanation (iii) : Where a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque, either originally or by endorsement, is expressed to be payable to the order of a specified person, and not to him or his order, it is nevertheless payable to him or his order at his option. [section 13(1)]. - - A negotiable instrument may be made payable to two or more payees jointly, or it may be made payable in the alternative to one of two, or one or some of several payees. [section 13(2)].

Promissory Note - A “promissory note” is an instrument in writing (not being a bank-note or a currency-note) containing an unconditional under­taking, signed by the maker, to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person, or to the bearer of the instrument. [Section 4].

Bill of Exchange – As per statutory definition, “bill of exchange” is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument. [Para 1 of section 5]. A cheque is a special type of Bill of Exchange. It is drawn on banker and is required to be made payable on demand.

Drawer, Drawee and payee - The maker of a bill of exchange or cheque is called the “drawer”; the person thereby directed to pay is called the “drawee” [section 7 para 1]. - - The person named in the instrument, to whom, or to whose order the money is by the instrument directed to be paid, is called the “payee” [section 7 para 5]. - - However, a drawer and payee can be one person as he can order to pay the amount to himself.

At sight, On presentment, After sight - In a promissory note or bill of exchange the expressions “at sight” and “on presentment” mean ‘on demand’. The expression “after sight” means, in a promissory note, after presentment for sight, and, in a bill of exchange, after acceptance, or noting for non-acceptance, or protest for non-acceptance. [section 21]. - - Thus, in case of document ‘after sight’, the countdown starts only after document is ‘sighted’ by the concerned party.

Stamp duty on Negotiable Instrument – A negotiable instrument is required to be stamped. Stamp duty on Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note is a Union Subject. Hence, stamp duty is same all over India.

Hundi – a local instrument – Hundi is an indigenous instrument similar to Negotiable Instrument. The term is derived from Sanskrit word ‘hund’ which means ‘to collect’. If it is drawn in local language, it is governed by local usage and customs.

Provisions in respect of Cheques - A “cheque” is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified banker and not expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand. ‘Cheque’ includes electronic image of a truncated cheque and a cheque in electronic form. [section 6]. The definition is amended by Amendment Act, 2002, making provision for electronic submission and clearance of cheque. The cheque is one form of Bill of Exchange. It is addressed to Banker. It cannot be made payable after some days. It must be made payable ‘on demand’.

Crossing of Cheque – The Act makes specific provisions for crossing of cheques.

Cheque crossed generally - Where a cheque bears across its face an addition of the words “and company” or any abbreviation thereof, between two parallel transverse lines, or of two parallel transverse lines simply, either with or without the words “not negotiable”, that addition shall be deemed a crossing, and the cheque shall be deemed to be crossed generally. [section 123]

Cheque crossed specially - Where a cheque bears across its face an addition of the name of a banker, either with or without the words “not negotiable”, that addition shall be deemed a crossing, and the cheque shall be deemed to be crossed specially, and to be crossed to that banker. [section 124].

Payment of cheque crossed generally or specially - Where a cheque is crossed generally, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to a banker. Where a cheque is crossed specially, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to the banker to whom it is crossed, or his agent for collection. [section 126].

Cheque bearing “not negotiable” - A person taking a cheque crossed generally or specially, bearing in either case the words “not negotiable”, shall not have, and shall not be capable of giving, a better title to the cheque than that which the person form whom he took it had. [section 130]. Thus, mere writing words ‘Not negotiable’ does not mean that the cheque is not transferable. It is still transferable, but the transferee cannot get title better than what transferor had.

Electronic Cheque - Provisions of electronic cheque has been made by Amendment Act, 2002. As per Explanation I(a) to section 6, ‘A cheque in the electronic form’ means a cheque which contains the exact mirror image of a paper cheque, and is generated, written and signed by a secure system ensuring the minimum safety standards with the use of digital signature (with or without biometrics signature) and asymmetric crypto system.

Truncated Cheque - Provisions of electronic cheque has been made by Amendment Act, 2002. As per Explanation I(b) to section 6, ‘A truncated cheque’ means a cheque which is truncated during the clearing cycle, either by the clearing house during the course of a clearing cycle, either by the clearing house or by the bank whether paying or receiving payment, immediately on generation of an electronic image for transmission, substituting the further physical movement of the cheque in writing.

Penalty in case of dishonour of cheques for insufficiency of funds - If a cheque is dishonoured even when presented before expiry of 6 months, the payee or holder in due course is required to give notice to drawer of cheque within 30 days from receiving information from bank.. The drawer should make payment within 15 days of receipt of notice. If he does not pay within 15 days, the payee has to lodge a complaint with Metropolitan Magistrate or Judicial Magistrate of First Class, against drawer within one month from the last day on which drawer should have paid the amount. The penalty can be upto two years imprisonment or fine upto twice the amount of cheque or both. The offense can be tried summarily. Notice can be sent to drawer by speed post or courier. Offense is compoundable.

It must be noted that even if penalty is imposed on drawer, he is still liable to make payment of the cheque which was dishonoured. Thus, the fine/imprisonment is in addition to his liability to make payment of the cheque.

Return of cheque should be for insufficiency of funds - The offence takes place only when cheque is dishonoured for insufficiency of funds or where the amount exceeds the arrangement. Section 146 of NI Act only provides that once complainant produces bank’s slip or memo having official mark that the cheque is dishonoured, the Court will presume dishonour of the cheque, unless and until such fact is disproved.

Calculation of date of maturity of Bill of Exchange - If the instrument is not payable on demand, calculation of date of maturity is important. An instrument not payable on demand is entitled to get 3 days grace period.

Presentment of Negotiable Instrument - The Negotiable Instrument is required to be presented for payment to the person who is liable to pay. Further, in case of Bill of Exchange payable ‘after sight’, it has to be presented for acceptance by drawee. ‘Acceptance’ means that drawee agrees to pay the amount as shown in the Bill. This is required as the maker of bill (drawer) is asking drawee to pay certain amount to payee. The drawee may refuse the payment as he has not signed the Bill and has not accepted the liability.

In case of Promissory Note, such acceptance is not required, as the maker who has signed the note himself is liable to make payment. However, if the promissory note is payable certain days ‘after sight’ [say 30 days after sight], it will have to be presented for ‘sight’.

If the instrument uses the expressions “on demand”, “at sight” or “on presentment”, the amount is payable on demand. In such case, presentment for acceptance is not required. The Negotiable Instrument will be directly presented for payment.

Acceptance and payment for honour and drawee in need - Provisions for acceptance and payment for honour have been made in case when the negotiable instrument is dishonoured. Bill is accepted for honour when it is dishonoured when presenting for acceptance, while payment for dishonour is made when Bill is dishonoured when presented for payment.

Negotiation of Instrument - The most salient feature of the instrument is that it is negotiable. Negotiation does not mean a mere transfer. After negotiation, the holder in due course can get a better title even if title of transferor was defective. If the instrument is ‘to order’, it can be negotiated by making endorsement. If the instrument is ‘to bearer’, it can be negotiated by delivery. As per definition of ‘delivery’, such delivery is valid only if made by party making, accepting or indorsing the instrument or by a person authorised by him.

An instrument can be negotiated any number of times. As per section 118(e), endorsements appearing on the negotiable instrument are presumed to have been made in the order in which they appear on the instrument, unless contrary is proved. [There is no mandatory provision to put date while signing, though advisable to do so]. Section 118(d) provides that there is presumption that the instrument was negotiated before its maturity, unless contrary is proved. As per section 60, Bill can be negotiated even after date of maturity by persons other than maker, drawee or acceptor after maturity. However, person getting such instrument is not ‘holder in due course’ and does not enjoy protections available to ‘holder in due course’.

Liability of parties - Basic liability of payment is as follows – (a) Maker in case of Promissory Note or Cheque and (b) Drawer of Bill till it is accepted by drawee and acceptor after the Bill is accepted . They are liable as ‘principal debtors’ and other parties to instrument are liable as sureties for maker, drawer or acceptor, as the case may be. When document is endorsed number of times, each prior party is liable to each subsequent party as principal debtor. In case of dishonour, notice is required to be given to drawer and all earlier endorsees.

Presumptions as to negotiable instruments - Until the contrary is proved, the following presumptions shall be made :— (a) of consideration - that every negoticble instrument was made or drawn for consideration, and that every such instrument, when it has been $ accepted, indorsed, negotiated or transferrgd, was accepted, indorsed, negotiated or transferred for consideration; - - (b) as to date - that every negotiable instrument bearing a date was oide or drawn on such date; - - (c) as to time of acceptance - that every accepted bill of exchange was accepted within a reasonable time after its date and before its maturity; - - (d) as to time of transfer - - that every transfer of a negotiable instrument was made before its maturity; - - (e) as to order of indorsements - that the indorsements appearing upon a negotiable instrument were made in the order in which they appear thereon; (f) as to stamps - that a lost promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque was duly stamped; - - (g) that holder is a holder in due course - that the holder of a negotiable instrument is a holder in due course : provided that, where the instrument has been obtained from its lawful owner, or from any person in lawful custody thereof, by means of an offence or fraud, or has been obtained from the maker or acceptor thereof by means of an of­fence or fraud, or for unlawful consideration, the burden of proving that the holder in due course lies upon him. [section 118]


The main purpose for which the Act was designed was to ensure information about all deals concerning land so that correct land records could be maintained. The Act is used for proper recording of transactions relating to other immovable property also. The Act provides for registration of other documents also, which can give these documents more authenticity. Registering authorities have been provided in all the districts for this purpose.

Note that this registration is entirely different from registration of charge done by Registrar of Companies under Companies Act. If the charge relates to immovable property, registration with Registrar (appointed by State Government) under Registration Act and registration under Companies Act with ROC are both required.

Documents of which registration is compulsory - Registration of documents relating to immovable property is compulsory. Registration of will is optional.

Documents not requiring registration - Some documents though related to immovable property are not required to be registered. These are given in section 17(2) of the Act.

Time of presentation for registration - Document should be submitted for registration within 4 months from date of execution [section 23]. Decree or order of Court can be submitted within four months from the day it becomes final. If document is executed by several persons at different times, it may be presented for registration within 4 months from date of each execution [section 24]. If a document is executed abroad by some of the parties, it can be presented for registration within four months after its arrival in India [section 26].

Re-registration - If a person finds that a document has been filed for registration by a person who is not empowered to do so, he can present the document for re-registration within 4 months from the date he became aware of the fact that registration of document is invalid [section 23A].

Where document should be registered - Document relating to immovable property should be registered in the office of Sub-Registrar of sub-district within which the whole or some portion of property is situated [section 28]. Other document can be registered in the office of Sub-Registrar where all persons executing the document desire it to be registered [section 29]. A Registrar can accept a document which is registerable with sub-registrar who is subordinate to him [section 30(1)]. Document should be presented for registration at the office of Registrar/Sub-Registrar. However, in special case, the officer may attend residence of any person to accept a document or will [section 31].

All persons executing document must appear before Registrar - All persons executing the document or their representatives, assigns or agents holding power of attorney must appear before registering officer [section 34(1)]. They have to admit execution and sign the document in presence of Registrar, as required under section 58(1)(a). Appearance may be simultaneous or at different times [section 34(2)]. If some of the persons are unable to appear within 4 months, further time upto additional 4 months can be given on payment of fine upto 10 times the proper registration fee [proviso to section 34(1)].

If document relates to transfer of ownership of immovable property, passport size photograph and finger prints of each buyer and seller of such property shall be affixed to document. [proviso to section 32A]. The Registrar is required to ensure that these are endorsed on the document.

Registration by Registering Officer - If the Registering Officer is satisfied about identity of persons and if they admit about execution of documents, and after registration fees are paid, the registering officer will register the document [section 35(1)]. He will make necessary entries in the Register maintained by him.

Certification of registration - After all formalities are complete, the Registering Officer will endorse the document with word ‘Registered’, and sign the same. The endorsement will be copied in Register. After registration, the document will be returned to the person who presented the document [section 61].

Effective date of document - A document takes effect from its date of execution and not from date of registration. However, if the document states that it will be effective from a particular date, it will be effective from that date [section 47].

Document registered has priority over oral agreement - Any non-testamentary document registered under the Act takes effect against any oral agreement relating to the property. The only exceptions are : (a) If possession of property (movable or immovable) is delivered on basis of such oral agreement and such delivery of possession is valid transfer under any law (b) Mortgage by deposit of title deeds takes effect against any mortgage deed subsequently executed and registered which relates to same property [section 48].

Effect of non-registration - If a document which is required to be registered under section 17 or under provisions of Transfer of Property Act, 1882 is not registered, the effect is that such un-registered document * does not affect any immovable property comprised therein * cannot be received as evidence of any transaction affecting such property. - - - Thus, the document becomes redundant and useless for all practical purposes. It can be accepted as evidence in criminal proceedings.


Sale of Goods Act is one of very old mercantile law. Sale of Goods is one of the special types of Contract. Initially, this was part of Indian Contract Act itself in chapter VII (sections 76 to 123). Later these sections in Contract Act were deleted, and separate Sale of Goods Act was passed in 1930.

The Sale of Goods Act is complimentary to Contract Act. Basic provisions of Contract Act apply to contract of Sale of Goods also. Basic requirements of contract i.e. offer and acceptance, legally enforceable agreement, mutual consent, parties competent to contract, free consent, lawful object, consideration etc. apply to contract of Sale of Goods also.

Contract of Sale - A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price. There may be a contract of sale between one part-owner and another. [section 4(1)]. A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. [section 4(2)].

Thus, following are essentials of contract of sale - * It is contract, i.e. all requirements of ‘contract’ must be fulfilled * It is of ‘goods’ * Transfer of property is required * Contract is between buyer and seller * Sale should be for ‘price’ * A part owner can sale his part to another part-owner * Contract may be absolute or conditional.

How Contract of sale is made - A contract of sale is made by an offer to buy or sell goods for a price and the acceptance of such offer. The contract may provide for the immediate delivery of the goods or immediate payment of the price or both, or for the delivery or payment by instalments, or that the delivery or payment or both shall be postponed. [section 5(1)]. Subject to the provisions of any law for the time being in force, a contract of sale may be made in writing or by word of mouth, or partly in writing and partly by word of mouth or may be implied from the conduct of the parties. [section 5(2)]. Thus, credit sale is also a ‘sale’. - - A verbal contract or contract by conduct of parties is valid. e.g. putting goods in basket in super market or taking food in a hotel.

Two parties to contract - Two parties are required for contract. - - “Buyer” means a person who buys or agrees to buy goods. [section 2(1)]. “Seller” means a person who sells or agrees to sell goods. [section 2(13)]. A part owner can sale his part to another part-owner. However, if joint owners distribute property among themselves as per mutual agreement, it is not ‘sale’ as there are no two parties.

Contract of Sale includes agreement to sale - Where under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer, the contract is called a sale, but where the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereaf­ter to be fulfilled, the contract is called an agreement to sell. [section 4(3)]. An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred. [section 4(4)]. The provision that contract of sale includes agreement to sale is only for the purposes of rights and liabilities under Sale of Goods Act and not to determine liability of sales tax, which arises only when actual sale takes place.

Transfer of property - “Property” means the general property in goods, and not merely a special property. [section 2(11)]. In layman’s terms ‘property’ means ‘ownership’. ‘General Property’ means ‘full ownership’. Thus, transfer of ‘general property’ is required to constitute a sale. If goods are given for hire, lease, hire purchase or pledge, ‘general property’ is not transferred and hence it is not a ‘sale’.

Possession and property - Note that ‘property’ and ‘possession’ are not synonymous. Transfer of possession does not mean transfer of property. e.g. - if goods are handed over to transporter or godown keeper, possession is transferred but ‘property’ remains with owner. Similarly, if goods remain in possession of seller after sale transaction is over, the ‘possession’ is with seller, but ‘property’ is with buyer.

Goods - “Goods” means every kind of movable property other than actionable claims and money; and includes stock and shares, growing crops, grass, and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale. [section 2(7)].

Price - “Price” means the money consideration for a sale of goods. [section 2(10)]. Consideration is required for any contract. However, in case of contract of sale of goods, the consideration should be ‘price’ i.e. money consideration.

Ascertainment of price - The price in a contract of sale may be fixed by the con­tract or may be left to be fixed in manner thereby agreed or may be determined by the course of dealing between the parties. [section 9(1)]. Where the price is not determined in accordance with the foregoing provisions, the buyer shall pay the seller a reasonable price. What is a reasonable price is a question of fact dependent on the circumstances of each particular case. [section 9(2)].

Conditions and Warranties - Opening para of section 16 makes it clear that there is no implied warranty or condition as to quality of fitness of goods for any particular purpose, except those specified in Sale of Goods Act or any other law. - - This is the basic principle of caveat emptor’ i.e. buyer be aware. However, there are certain stipulations which are essential for main purpose of the contract of sale of goods. These go the root of contract and non-fulfilment will mean loss of foundation of contract. These are termed as ‘conditions’. Other stipulations, which are not essential are termed as ‘warranty’. These are collateral to contract of sale of goods. Contract cannot be avoided for breach of warranty, but aggrieved party can claim damages. - - A breach of condition can be treated as breach of warranty, but vice versa is not permissible.

A stipulation in a contract of sale with reference to goods which are the subject thereof may be a condition or a warranty. [section 12(1)]. A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of the contract, the breach of which gives rise to a right to treat the contract as repudiated. [section 12(2)]. A warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of the contract, the breach of which gives rise to a claim for damages but not to a right to reject the goods and treat the contract as repudiated. [section 12(3)]. Whether a stipulation in a contract of sale is a condition or a warranty depends in each case on the construction of the con­tract. A stipulation may be a condition, though called a warranty in the contract. [section 12(4)].

Where a particular stipulation in contract is a condition or warranty depends on the interpretation of terms of contract. Mere stating ‘Conditions of Contract’ in agreement does not mean all stipulations mentioned are ‘conditions’ within meaning of section 12(2).

When condition to be treated as warranty - Where a contract of sale is subject to any condition to be fulfilled by the seller, the buyer may waive the condition or elect to treat the breach of the condition as a breach of warran­ty and not as a ground for treating the contract as repudiated. [section 13(1)]. Where a contract of sale is not severable and the buyer has accepted the goods or part thereof, the breach of any condition to be fulfilled by the seller can only be treated as a breach of warranty and not as a ground for rejecting the goods and treating the contract as repudiated, unless there is a term of the con­tract, express or implied, to that effect. [section 13(2)]. Nothing in this section shall affect the case of any condition or warranty fulfillment of which is excused by law by reason of impossibility or otherwise. [section 13(3)].

Time of payment is not essence of contract but time of delivery of goods is, unless specified otherwise - Unless a different intention appears from the terms of the contract, stipulations as to time of payment are not deemed to be of the essence of a contract of sale. Whether any other stipula­tion as to time is of the essence of the contract or not depends on the terms of the contract. [section 11]. As a general rule, time of payment is not essence of contract, unless there is specific different provision in Contract. In other words, time of payment specified is ‘warranty’. If payment is not made in time, the seller can claim damages but cannot repudiate the contract.

Caveat Emptor - The principle termed as ‘caveat emptor’ means ‘buyer be aware’. Generally, buyer is expected to be careful while purchasing the goods and seller is not liable for any defects in goods sold by him. This principle in basic form is embodied in section 16 that subject to provisions of Sale of Goods Act and any other law, there is no implied condition or warranty as to quality or fitness of goods for any particular purpose. As per section 2(12), “Quality of goods” includes their state or condition.

Transfer of property as between seller and buyer - Transfer of general property is required in a sale. ‘Property’ means legal ownership. It is necessary to decide whether property in goods has transferred to buyer to determine rights and liabilities of buyer and seller. Generally, risk accompanies property in goods i.e. when property in goods passes, risk also passes. If property in goods has already passed on to buyer, seller cannot stop delivery of goods even if in the meanwhile buyer has become insolvent. - - - Where there is a contract for the sale of unascertained goods, no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer unless and until the goods are ascertained. [section 18].

Property passes when intended to pass - Where there is a contract for the sale of specific or ascertained goods the property in them is transferred to the buyer at such time as the parties to the contract intend it to be transferred. [section 19(1)]. For the purpose of ascertaining the intention of the parties regard shall be had to the terms of the contract, the conduct of the parties and the circumstances of the case. [section 19(2)]. Unless a different intention appears, the rules contained in sections 20 to 24 are rules for ascertaining the intention of the parties as to the time at which the property in the goods is to pass to the buyer. [section 19(3)].

Specific goods in a deliverable state - Where there is an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state, the property in the goods passes to the buyer when the contract is made, and it is immate­rial whether the time of payment of the price or the time of delivery of the goods, or both, is postponed. [section 20].

Auction sale - Auction sale is special mode of sale. The sale is made in open after making public announcement. Buyers assemble and make offers on the spot. Person offering to pay highest price gets the goods. Usually, auctioneer is appointed to conduct auction. Higher and higher bids are offered and sale is complete when auctioneer accepts a bid.- - - In the case of a sale by auction— (1) where goods are put up for sale in lots, each lot is prima facie deemed to be the subject of a separate contract of sale; (2) the sale is complete when the auctioneer announces its completion by the fall of the hammer or in other customary man­ner; and, until such announcement is made, any bidder may retract his bid; (3) a right to bid may be reserved expressly by or on behalf of the seller and, where such right is expressly so re­served, but not otherwise, the seller or any one person on his behalf may, subject to the provisions hereinafter contained, bid at the auction; (4) where the sale is not notified to be subject to a right to bid on behalf of the seller, it shall not be lawful for the seller to bid himself or to employ any person to bid at such sale, or for the auctioneer knowingly to take any bid from the seller or any such person; and any sale contravening this rule may be treated as fraudulent by the buyer; (5) the sale may be notified to be subject to a reserved or upset price; (6) if the seller makes use of pretended bidding to raise the price, the sale is voidable at the option of the buyer. [section 64].

Delivery of goods to buyer - The Act makes elaborate provisions regarding delivery of goods to buyer. It is the duty of the seller to deliver the goods and of the buyer to accept and pay for them, in accordance with the terms of the contract of sale. [section 31]. Unless otherwise agreed, delivery of the goods and payment of the price are concurrent conditions, that is to say, the seller shall be ready and willing to give possession of the goods to the buyer in exchange for the price, and the buyer shall be ready and willing to pay the price in exchange for possession of the goods. [section 32]. - - Note that this is ‘unless otherwise agreed’, i.e. buyer and seller can agree to different provisions in respect of payment and delivery.

Acceptance of goods by buyer - Contract of Sale is completed not by mere delivery of goods but by acceptance of goods by buyer. ‘Acceptance’ does not mean mere receipt of goods. It means checking the goods to ascertain whether they are as per contract. - - - Where goods are delivered to the buyer which he has not previously examined, he is not deemed to have accepted them unless and until he has had a reasonable opportunity of examining them for the purpose of ascertaining whether they are in conform­ity with the contract. [section 41(1)]. - - Unless otherwise agreed, when the seller tenders delivery of goods to the buyer, he is bound, on request, to afford the buyer a reasonable opportunity of examining the goods for the purpose of ascertaining whether they are in conformity with the contract. [section 41(2)].

Buyer’s and Seller’s duties - The Act casts various duties and grants certain rights on both buyer and seller.

Rights of unpaid seller against the goods - After goods are sold and property is transferred to buyer, the only remedy with seller is to approach Court, if the buyer does not pay. Seller has no right to take forceful possession of goods from buyer, once property in goods is transferred to him. However, the Act gives some rights to seller if his dues are not paid.

Suits for breach of the contract - Unpaid seller can exercise his rights to the extent explained above. In addition, seller can exercise following rights in case of breach of contract. Buyer has also rights in case of breach of contract.

Measure for compensation and damages – The Sale of Goods Act does not specify how to measure damages. However, since the Act is complimentary to Contract Act, measure of compensation and damages will be as provided in sections 73 and 74 of Contract Act.


Purpose of the Act is to provide for registration of literary, scientific and charitable societies.

Societies Registration Act is a Central Act. However, ‘unincorporated literary, scientific, religious and other societies and associations’ is a State Subject (Entry 32 of List II of Seventh Schedule to Constitution, i.e. State List). Thus, normally, there should have been only State Laws on this subject. However, Societies Registration Act was passed in 1860, i.e. much before bifurcation of power between State and Centre was specified. Though the Act is still in force, it has been specifically repealed in many States and those States have their own Acts. Thus, practically, the Central Act is mainly of academic interest.

Societies to which the Act applies – Following societies can be registered under the Act - * Charitable societies * Military orphan funds or societies * Societies established for promotion of science, literature, or for fine arts * Societies established for instruction and diffusion of useful knowledge, diffusion of political education * Societies established for maintenance of libraries or reading rooms for general public * Societies established for Public museums and galleries for paintings or other works of art, collections of natural history, mechanical and philosophical inventions, instruments or designs [section 20]

Registration – Any seven or more persons associated for literary, scientific or charitable purpose can register a trust by subscribing their names to memorandum of association. [section 1]. [The Act envisages filing the memorandum with Registrar of Joint Stock Companies. Practically, the memorandum will have to be filed with Registrar appointed under corresponding State Act]. - - The memorandum of association shall contain name and objects of society and names and addresses of governors/council/ directors or other governing body. - - Copy of rules and regulations of society will also have to be filed along with memorandum. [section 2].

Annual list of managing body to be filed – Annual list of managing body should be filed within 14 days after AGM. [section4]. If there is no provision of AGM, then list should be filed in January every year. [section 4]. - - The governing body may be termed as governors, council, directors, committee, trustees or other body to whom by rules and regulations of society, the management of the affairs of society is entrusted. [section 16].

Society is not a body corporate – Society is not a body corporate. This is evident from following – (a) Entry 32 in List II of Schedule to Constitution itself uses the words ‘unincorporated’ (b) As per section 4, property of society vests in governing body, if not vested in trustees. Thus, property does not vest in society as such. (c) Section 6 states that suit by or against society can be only in name of President, Chairman, Principal Secretary or Trustees, as determined by rules of society. Thus, suit cannot be in name of society as such.

Office bearers not personally liable – Section 8 makes it clear that though suit against society is instituted in name of some person, he is not personally liable, but property of society will be liable.

Members of society – A member is a person who is admitted according to rules and regulations of society and who pays subscription, or signed the roll or list of members, and who has not resigned from membership. [section 15]. A member can be sued as stranger for arrear in subscription or if he injures or destroys property of society. [section 10]. Member guilty of offence of stealing, embezzlement or wilful destruction of society property can be punished as stranger, i.e. not a member. [section 11].

Alteration, extension of purposes, amlagamation or dissolution – Society can alter, extend or abridge is purposes, or amalgamate with other society after approval of general meeting of members. [section 12]. Society can be dissolved if three-fifths of members determine to do so. [section 13]. Upon dissolution, balance amount should be given to other society and not to any member. [section 14].


Specific Reliefs Act is complimentary to provisions of Contract Act and Transfer of Property Act, as the Act applies both to movable property and immovable property. The Act applies in cases where Court can order specific performance of a contract or act. As per section 4, specific relief can be granted only for purpose of enforcing individual civil rights and not for the mere purpose of enforcing a civil law.

‘Specific performance’ means Court will ask the party to perform his part of agreement, instead of asking him to pay damages to other party.

Recovering possession of immovable property – * A person who is entitled to possession of a specific immovable property may recover it in the manner provided in Code of Civil Procedure. (section 5) * If any person is disposed without his consent, of immovable property otherwise than by course of law, he can recover possession, even if any other title is set up in such suit. Such suit shall be brought within 6 months. No suit can be filed against Government for recovery of possession. [section 6]. - - That is why it is termed as ‘possession is 9 points in law’. Even an unlawful possession of immovable property can be taken away only by lawful means and not forcefully.

Recovering possession of specific movable property – * A person who is entitled to possession of a specific movable property may recover it in the manner provided in Code of Civil Procedure. (section 7) * If any person is in possession or control of a specific movable property of which he is not owner, he can be compelled to specifically deliver it to the person entitled to immediate possession, in cases specified in section 6. - - Thus, if a person holding the movable property is owner of goods, he cannot be compelled to deliver it to other. However, in other cases, he can be compelled to deliver it, even if other person is not owner, as long as he is entitled to its immediate possession.

Specific performance of contract – Specific performance of contract can be ordered, at discretion of Court, in following cases – (a) Where there exists no standard for ascertaining damage caused by the non-performance of act agreed to be done or (b) When the act agreed to be done is such that compensation in money for non-performance will not give sufficient relief. [section 10]. As per explanation (ii) to section 10, breach of contract in respect of movable property can be relieved (by paying damages) unless the property is not an ordinary article of commerce or is of specific value or interest to the tariff, or consists of goods which are not easily available in the market. - - In other words, Court may order to deliver specific article only if it is special or unique article, not available in market. In other cases, Court will order damages but not order specific performance of contract. - - In case of immovable property, normally, specific performance will be ordered, as such property is usually unique. - - Section 12(1) states that Court shall not order performance of part of contract, except in cases specified in that section.

Contracts which cannot be specifically enforced – Following contracts cannot specifically enforced – (a) Where compensation is adequate relief (b) Contract runs into such minute or numerous details or depends on personal qualifications of parties or is such that Court cannot enforce specific performance of its material terms (c) Contract which in its nature is determinable (d) Contract, performance of which involves a continuous duty, which Court cannot supervise. [section 14]. - - In other words, in case of movable articles or contract of intricate nature, specific performance will normally not be ordered by Court. - - Specific performance of contract of personal nature cannot be ordered.

Discretionary powers of Court – Jurisdiction of Court to decree specific performance is discretionary. Court will not order specific performance merely because it is lawful to do so. [section 20(1)]. Court will consider various aspects before issuing decree for specific performance. - - Court can grant compensation in lieu of even in addition to specific performance. [section 21].

Other cases when Court can order specific performance – (a) Order rectification of instrument if it does not reflect real intention of parties. This may happen through fraud or mutual mistake. [section 26] (b) Order rescission of contract (section 27) (c) Cancellation of instrument by getting declared that it is void (section 31).


Entry 6 of List III (Concurrent List) of Seventh Schedule to Constitution reads ‘Transfer of property other than agricultural land; registration of deeds and documents’. Thus, transfer of property is a ‘Concurrent Subject’. Both Central and State Government can take legislative action in respect of transfer of property except that relating to agricultural land. [Transfer of agricultural land is a State subject under Entry 18 of List II (State List)]

The Act proposes to prescribe law relating to transfer of property by act of parties. Thus, the Act applies only to voluntary transfer or property. It does not cover transfer of property by ‘will’.

Section 4 of the Act clarifies that the part of the Act which relates to contracts shall be taken as part of Indian Contract Act and some specified sections shall be read as supplemental to Indian Registration Act. Thus, the Act is complimentary to Indian Contract Act and Registration Act. The Act applies both to movable and immovable property.

Transfer of Property – ‘Transfer of Property’ means an act by which a living person conveys property, in present or future, to one or more living persons, or to himself or to himself and one or more other living persons. ‘Living person’ includes a company or association or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not. [section 5]. - - The property may be movable or immovable, present or future. - - Such transfer can be made orally, unless transfer in writing is specifically required under any law. [section 9]. - - Any person competent to contract and entitled to transferable property, or authorised to dispose of transferable property on his own, is competent to transfer such property. The property can be transferred wholly or in part. It can be transferred either absolutely or conditionally. Such transfer can be only to the extent and in manner allowed and prescribed by law. [section 7].

Sale of immovable property – ‘Sale’ is a transfer of ownership in exchange for a price paid or promised or part-paid and part promised. Such transfer in case of tangible immovable property of value of Rs 100 or more can be made only by a registered instrument. Delivery of tangible immovable property is made when seller places the buyer, or such person as he directs, in possession of property. Thus, delivery of immovable property can be only by handing over actual possession to buyer or to a person authorised by buyer. [section 54].

Mortgage – ‘Mortgage’ is the transfer of an interest in specific immovable property for the purpose of securing payment of money advanced or to be advanced, by way of loan or an existing or future debt. The transferor is called a mortgagor, the transferee a mortgagee, the principal money and interest of which payment is secured are called as ‘mortgage money’ and the instrument by which transfer is effected is called a mortgage-deed. [section 58(a)]. Mortgage can be * simple mortgage * Mortgage by conditional sale * Usufructuary mortgage * English Mortgage * Mortgage by deposit of title deeds or * Anomalous mortgage.

When mortgagee can take possession of mortgaged property in case of default - Under provisions of section 69 of Transfer of Property Act, mortgagee can take possession of mortgaged property and sale the same without intervention of Court only in case of English mortgage, if there is default of payment of mortgage money. In addition, mortgagee can take possession of mortgaged property where there is specific provision in mortgage deed and the mortgaged property is situated in towns of Kolkata, Chennai or Mumbai. In other cases, possession of property can be taken only with intervention of Court. [English Mortgage is where mortgagor binds himself to repay the mortgaged money on a certain date, and transfers the mortgaged property absolutely to the mortgagee, but subject to a proviso that he will re-transfer the property to the mortgagor upon payment of the mortgage-money as agreed. - section 58(e) of Transfer of Property Act].

Charge – Where immovable property of one person is, by act of parties or by operation of law, made security for payment of money to another, and the transaction does not amount to a mortgage, the latter person is said to have a charge on the property; and all provisions in respect of ‘simple mortgage’ will apply to such charge. [section 100]. [Mortgage is not a ‘charge’ as per section 100 of Transfer of Property Act, but it will be a ‘charge’ for purpose of registration under Companies Act, as per section 124 of Companies Act].

A 'charge' is not 'mortgage'. In every mortgage, there is 'charge', but every charge is not a mortgage. Section 100 of Transfer of Property Act states that if immovable property is made as security for payment of money and if it does not amount to mortgage, then the later person is said to have a charge on property. However, a 'charge' does not create an interest in the property. - Dattatreya Mote v. Anand Datar - (1994) 2 SCC 799. Thus, no particular form is necessary to create 'charge'. [However, for purpose of registration under Companies Act, ‘charge’ includes mortgage].

Lease of immovable property – A lease of immovable property is transfer of a right to enjoy such property, made for a certain time, express or implied, or in perpetuity. Such transfer of right should be in consideration of a price paid or promised, or of money, or a share of crops, or service or anything of value, to be rendered periodically or on specified occasions to the transferor by the transferee, who accepts the transfer on such terms. [section 105]. Lease of property from year to year or for any term exceeding one year can be made only by registered instrument. [section 107].

Exchange – When two persons mutually transfer the ownership of one thing for the ownership of another, neither thing or both things being money only, the transaction is called an ‘exchange’. [section 118].

Actionable Claim – ‘Actionable claim’ means a claim to any debt or to any beneficial in movable property not in possession (either actual or constructive) of the claimant. The debt should be other than a debt secured by mortgage of immovable property or pledge of movable property. The claim should be such be such as Civil Court would recognise as affording grounds for relief. Such debt or beneficial interest be existent, accruing, conditional or contingent. [section 3 para 6]. Such transfer of an actionable claim shall be effected only by execution of an instrument is writing. [section 130]. - - One normal example is that receivable from a person is ‘actionable claim’, which can be transferred to another (e.g. one bank may transfer some of its receivables to another).


The Negotiable Instruments Act was passed in 1881. Some provisions of the Act have become redundant due to passage of time, change in methods of doing business and technology changes. However, the basic principles of the Act are still valid and the Act has stood test of time. The Act extends to the whole of India. There is no doubt that the Act is to regulate commercial transactions and was drafted to suit requirements of business conditions then prevailing.

The instrument is mainly an instrument of credit readily convertible into money and easily passable from one hand to another.

Local usage prevails unless excluded - The Act does not affect any local usage relating to any instrument in an oriental language. However, the local usage can be excluded by any words in the body of the instrument, which indicate an intention that the legal relations of the parties will be governed by provisions of Negotiable Instruments Act and not by local usage. [section 1].

Thus, unless specifically excluded, local usage prevails, if the instrument is in regional language.

Bill of exchange and promissory notes excluded from information Technology Act - Section (1)(4)(a) of Information Technology Act provides that the Act will not apply to Bill of Exchange and Promissory Notes. Thus, a Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note cannot be made by electronic means. However, cheque is covered under of Information Technology Act and hence can be made and / or sent by electronic means.

Changes made by Amendment Act, 2002 - (a) Definition of ‘cheque’ and related provisions in respect of cheque amended to facilitate electronic submission and/or electronic clearance of cheque. Corresponding changes were also made in Information Technology Act. (b) Bouncing of cheque - Provisions amended * Provision for imprisonment upto 2 years against present one year * Period for issuing notice to drawer increased from 15 days to 30 days * Government Nominee Directors excluded from liability * Court empowered to take cognizance of offence even if complaint filed beyond one month * Summary trial procedure permitted for imposing punishment upto one year and fine even exceeding Rs 5,000 * Summons can be issued by speed post or courier service * Summons refused will be deemed to have been served * Evidence of complainant through affidavit permitted * Bank’s slip or memo indicating dishonour of cheque will be prima facie evidence unless contrary proved * Offence can be compounded. - - The amendments have been made effective from 6-2-2003.

Transferee can get better title than transferor – Normal principle is that a person cannot transfer better title to property that he himself has. For example, if a person steals a car and sells the same, the buyer does not get any legal title to the car as the transferor himself had no title to the car. The real owner of car can anytime obtain possession from the buyer, even if the buyer had purchased the car in good faith and even if he had no idea that the seller had no title to the car. This provision is no doubt sound, but would make free negotiability of instrument difficult, as it would be difficult to verify title of transferor in many cases. Hence, it is provided that if a person acquires ‘Negotiable Instrument’ in good faith and without knowledge of defect in title of the transferor, the transferee can get better title to the negotiable instrument, even if the title of transferor was defective. This is really to ensure free negotiability of instrument so that persons can deal in the instrument without any fear.

Difference between negotiation and transfer/assignment - Difference between “Negotiation’ and assignment/transfer is that in case of negotiation, the transferee can get title better than transferor, which can never happen in assignment/transfer.

Statutory definition of Negotiable instrument - A “negotiable instrument” means a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque payable either to order or to bearer. Explanation (i) : A promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque is payable to order which is expressed to be so payable or which is expressed to be payable to a particular person, and does not contain words prohibiting transfer or indicating an intention that it shall not be transferable. Explanation (ii) : A promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque is payable to bearer which is expressed to be so payable or on which the only or last endorsement is an endorsement in blank. Explanation (iii) : Where a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque, either originally or by endorsement, is expressed to be payable to the order of a specified person, and not to him or his order, it is nevertheless payable to him or his order at his option. [section 13(1)]. - - A negotiable instrument may be made payable to two or more payees jointly, or it may be made payable in the alternative to one of two, or one or some of several payees. [section 13(2)].

Promissory Note - A “promissory note” is an instrument in writing (not being a bank-note or a currency-note) containing an unconditional under­taking, signed by the maker, to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person, or to the bearer of the instrument. [Section 4].

Bill of Exchange – As per statutory definition, “bill of exchange” is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument. [Para 1 of section 5]. A cheque is a special type of Bill of Exchange. It is drawn on banker and is required to be made payable on demand.

Drawer, Drawee and payee - The maker of a bill of exchange or cheque is called the “drawer”; the person thereby directed to pay is called the “drawee” [section 7 para 1]. - - The person named in the instrument, to whom, or to whose order the money is by the instrument directed to be paid, is called the “payee” [section 7 para 5]. - - However, a drawer and payee can be one person as he can order to pay the amount to himself.

At sight, On presentment, After sight - In a promissory note or bill of exchange the expressions “at sight” and “on presentment” mean ‘on demand’. The expression “after sight” means, in a promissory note, after presentment for sight, and, in a bill of exchange, after acceptance, or noting for non-acceptance, or protest for non-acceptance. [section 21]. - - Thus, in case of document ‘after sight’, the countdown starts only after document is ‘sighted’ by the concerned party.

Stamp duty on Negotiable Instrument – A negotiable instrument is required to be stamped. Stamp duty on Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note is a Union Subject. Hence, stamp duty is same all over India.

Hundi – a local instrument – Hundi is an indigenous instrument similar to Negotiable Instrument. The term is derived from Sanskrit word ‘hund’ which means ‘to collect’. If it is drawn in local language, it is governed by local usage and customs.

Provisions in respect of Cheques - A “cheque” is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified banker and not expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand. ‘Cheque’ includes electronic image of a truncated cheque and a cheque in electronic form. [section 6]. The definition is amended by Amendment Act, 2002, making provision for electronic submission and clearance of cheque. The cheque is one form of Bill of Exchange. It is addressed to Banker. It cannot be made payable after some days. It must be made payable ‘on demand’.

Crossing of Cheque – The Act makes specific provisions for crossing of cheques.

Cheque crossed generally - Where a cheque bears across its face an addition of the words “and company” or any abbreviation thereof, between two parallel transverse lines, or of two parallel transverse lines simply, either with or without the words “not negotiable”, that addition shall be deemed a crossing, and the cheque shall be deemed to be crossed generally. [section 123]

Cheque crossed specially - Where a cheque bears across its face an addition of the name of a banker, either with or without the words “not negotiable”, that addition shall be deemed a crossing, and the cheque shall be deemed to be crossed specially, and to be crossed to that banker. [section 124].

Payment of cheque crossed generally or specially - Where a cheque is crossed generally, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to a banker. Where a cheque is crossed specially, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to the banker to whom it is crossed, or his agent for collection. [section 126].

Cheque bearing “not negotiable” - A person taking a cheque crossed generally or specially, bearing in either case the words “not negotiable”, shall not have, and shall not be capable of giving, a better title to the cheque than that which the person form whom he took it had. [section 130]. Thus, mere writing words ‘Not negotiable’ does not mean that the cheque is not transferable. It is still transferable, but the transferee cannot get title better than what transferor had.

Electronic Cheque - Provisions of electronic cheque has been made by Amendment Act, 2002. As per Explanation I(a) to section 6, ‘A cheque in the electronic form’ means a cheque which contains the exact mirror image of a paper cheque, and is generated, written and signed by a secure system ensuring the minimum safety standards with the use of digital signature (with or without biometrics signature) and asymmetric crypto system.

Truncated Cheque - Provisions of electronic cheque has been made by Amendment Act, 2002. As per Explanation I(b) to section 6, ‘A truncated cheque’ means a cheque which is truncated during the clearing cycle, either by the clearing house during the course of a clearing cycle, either by the clearing house or by the bank whether paying or receiving payment, immediately on generation of an electronic image for transmission, substituting the further physical movement of the cheque in writing.

Penalty in case of dishonour of cheques for insufficiency of funds - If a cheque is dishonoured even when presented before expiry of 6 months, the payee or holder in due course is required to give notice to drawer of cheque within 30 days from receiving information from bank.. The drawer should make payment within 15 days of receipt of notice. If he does not pay within 15 days, the payee has to lodge a complaint with Metropolitan Magistrate or Judicial Magistrate of First Class, against drawer within one month from the last day on which drawer should have paid the amount. The penalty can be upto two years imprisonment or fine upto twice the amount of cheque or both. The offense can be tried summarily. Notice can be sent to drawer by speed post or courier. Offense is compoundable.

It must be noted that even if penalty is imposed on drawer, he is still liable to make payment of the cheque which was dishonoured. Thus, the fine/imprisonment is in addition to his liability to make payment of the cheque.

Return of cheque should be for insufficiency of funds - The offence takes place only when cheque is dishonoured for insufficiency of funds or where the amount exceeds the arrangement. Section 146 of NI Act only provides that once complainant produces bank’s slip or memo having official mark that the cheque is dishonoured, the Court will presume dishonour of the cheque, unless and until such fact is disproved.

Calculation of date of maturity of Bill of Exchange - If the instrument is not payable on demand, calculation of date of maturity is important. An instrument not payable on demand is entitled to get 3 days grace period.

Presentment of Negotiable Instrument - The Negotiable Instrument is required to be presented for payment to the person who is liable to pay. Further, in case of Bill of Exchange payable ‘after sight’, it has to be presented for acceptance by drawee. ‘Acceptance’ means that drawee agrees to pay the amount as shown in the Bill. This is required as the maker of bill (drawer) is asking drawee to pay certain amount to payee. The drawee may refuse the payment as he has not signed the Bill and has not accepted the liability.

In case of Promissory Note, such acceptance is not required, as the maker who has signed the note himself is liable to make payment. However, if the promissory note is payable certain days ‘after sight’ [say 30 days after sight], it will have to be presented for ‘sight’.

If the instrument uses the expressions “on demand”, “at sight” or “on presentment”, the amount is payable on demand. In such case, presentment for acceptance is not required. The Negotiable Instrument will be directly presented for payment.

Acceptance and payment for honour and drawee in need - Provisions for acceptance and payment for honour have been made in case when the negotiable instrument is dishonoured. Bill is accepted for honour when it is dishonoured when presenting for acceptance, while payment for dishonour is made when Bill is dishonoured when presented for payment.

Negotiation of Instrument - The most salient feature of the instrument is that it is negotiable. Negotiation does not mean a mere transfer. After negotiation, the holder in due course can get a better title even if title of transferor was defective. If the instrument is ‘to order’, it can be negotiated by making endorsement. If the instrument is ‘to bearer’, it can be negotiated by delivery. As per definition of ‘delivery’, such delivery is valid only if made by party making, accepting or indorsing the instrument or by a person authorised by him.

An instrument can be negotiated any number of times. As per section 118(e), endorsements appearing on the negotiable instrument are presumed to have been made in the order in which they appear on the instrument, unless contrary is proved. [There is no mandatory provision to put date while signing, though advisable to do so]. Section 118(d) provides that there is presumption that the instrument was negotiated before its maturity, unless contrary is proved. As per section 60, Bill can be negotiated even after date of maturity by persons other than maker, drawee or acceptor after maturity. However, person getting such instrument is not ‘holder in due course’ and does not enjoy protections available to ‘holder in due course’.

Liability of parties - Basic liability of payment is as follows – (a) Maker in case of Promissory Note or Cheque and (b) Drawer of Bill till it is accepted by drawee and acceptor after the Bill is accepted . They are liable as ‘principal debtors’ and other parties to instrument are liable as sureties for maker, drawer or acceptor, as the case may be. When document is endorsed number of times, each prior party is liable to each subsequent party as principal debtor. In case of dishonour, notice is required to be given to drawer and all earlier endorsees.

Presumptions as to negotiable instruments - Until the contrary is proved, the following presumptions shall be made :— (a) of consideration - that every negoticble instrument was made or drawn for consideration, and that every such instrument, when it has been $ accepted, indorsed, negotiated or transferrgd, was accepted, indorsed, negotiated or transferred for consideration; - - (b) as to date - that every negotiable instrument bearing a date was oide or drawn on such date; - - (c) as to time of acceptance - that every accepted bill of exchange was accepted within a reasonable time after its date and before its maturity; - - (d) as to time of transfer - - that every transfer of a negotiable instrument was made before its maturity; - - (e) as to order of indorsements - that the indorsements appearing upon a negotiable instrument were made in the order in which they appear thereon; (f) as to stamps - that a lost promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque was duly stamped; - - (g) that holder is a holder in due course - that the holder of a negotiable instrument is a holder in due course : provided that, where the instrument has been obtained from its lawful owner, or from any person in lawful custody thereof, by means of an offence or fraud, or has been obtained from the maker or acceptor thereof by means of an of­fence or fraud, or for unlawful consideration, the burden of proving that the holder in due course lies upon him. [section 118]


Purpose of Arbitration Act is to provide quick redressal to commercial dispute by private Arbitration. Quick decision of any commercial dispute is necessary for smooth functioning of business and industry. Internationally, it is accepted that normally commercial disputes should be solved through arbitration and not through normal judicial system. Hence, the need of Alternate Dispute Resolution. (ADR). There are four methods of ADR - negotiation, mediation, conciliation and arbitration. 'Negotiation' is cheapest and simplest method. If it does not work, mediation through a mediator can be tried. If it does not work, conciliation and arbitration will be useful. Arbitration Act makes provision for conciliation and arbitration as ADR mechanisms. An arbitrator is basically a private judge appointed with consent of both the parties. Object of arbitration is settlement of dispute in an expeditious, convenient, inexpensive and private manner so that they do not become the subject of future litigation between the parties.

Scheme of the Act - The Act is divided in to following parts : (a) Part I - Domestic arbitration. (b) Part II - Enforcement of foreign awards. (c) Part III - Conciliation procedures. (d) Part IV - Supplementary provisions. (e) First Schedule - Convention on recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral award as per New York convention (f) Second Schedule - Protocol on Arbitration clauses (g) Third Schedule - Convention on the execution of foreign arbitral awards as per Geneva Convention.

Law based on UNCITRAL model law - The present Act is based on model law drafted by United Nations Commission on International Trade Laws (UNCITRAL), both on domestic arbitration as well as international commercial arbitration, to provide uniformity and certainty to both categories of cases.

Matters not referable to arbitration - Certain matters which are not arbitrable are - * Suits for divorce or restitution of conjugal rights * Taxation * Non-payment of admitted liability * Criminal matters.

Arbitration Agreement - The foundation of an arbitration is the arbitration agreement between the parties to submit to arbitration all are certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them. Thus, the provision of arbitration can be made at the time of entering the contract itself, so that if any dispute arises in future, the dispute can be referred to arbitrator as per the agreement. It is also possible to refer a dispute to arbitration after the dispute has arisen. Arbitration agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or in the form of a separate agreement. The agreement must be in writing and must be signed by both parties. The arbitration agreement can be by exchange of letters, document, telex, telegram etc. [section 7].

Court must refer the matter to arbitration in some cases - If a party approaches court despite the arbitration agreement, the other party can raise objection. However, such objection must be raised before submitting his first statement on the substance of dispute. Such objection must be accompanied by the original arbitration agreement or its certified copy. On such application the judicial authority shall refer the parties to arbitration. Since the word used is “shall”, it is mandatory for judicial authority to refer the matter to arbitration. [section 8]. However, once first statement to court is already made by the opposite party, the matter has to continue in the court. Once an application is made by other party for referring the matter to arbitration, the arbitrator can continue with arbitration and even make an arbitral award.

Appointment of Arbitrator - The parties can agree on a procedure for appointing the arbitrator or arbitrators. If they are unable to agree, each party will appoint one arbitrator and the two appointed arbitrators will appoint the third arbitrator who will act as a presiding arbitrator. [section 11(3)]. If one of the party does not appoint an arbitrator within 30 days, or if two appointed arbitrators do not appoint third arbitrator within 30 days, the party can request Chief Justice to appoint an arbitrator. [section 11(4)]. The Chief Justice can authorise any person or institution to appoint an arbitrator. [Some High Courts have authorised District Judge to appoint an arbitrator]. In case of international commercial dispute, the application for appointment of arbitrator has to be made to Chief Justice of India. In case of other domestic disputes, application has to be made to Chief Justice of High Court within whose jurisdiction the parties are situated. [section 11(12)]

Challenge to appointment of Arbitrator - An arbitrator is expected to be independent and impartial. If there are some circumstances due to which his independence or impartiality can be challenged, he must disclose the circumstances before his appointment. [section 12(1)]. Appointment of Arbitrator can be challenged only if (a) Circumstances exist that give rise to justifiable doubts as to his independence or impartiality (b) He does not possess the qualifications agreed to by the parties. [section 12(3)]. Appointment of arbitrator cannot be challenged on any other ground.. The challenge to appointment has to be decided by the arbitrator himself. If he does not accept the challenge, the proceedings can continue and the arbitrator can make the arbitral award. However, in such case, application for setting aside arbitral award can be made to Court. If the court agrees to the challenge, the arbitral award can be set aside. [section 13(6)]. Thus, even if the arbitrator does not accept the challenge to his appointment, the other party cannot stall further arbitration proceedings by rushing to court. The arbitration can continue and challenge can be made in Court only after arbitral award is made.

Conduct of Arbitral Proceedings - The Arbitral Tribunal should treat the parties equally and each party should be given full opportunity to present his case. [section 18]. The Arbitral Tribunal is not bound by Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 or Indian Evidence Act, 1872. [section 19(1)]. The parties to arbitration are free to agree on the procedure to be followed by the Arbitral Tribunal. If the parties do not agree to the procedure, the procedure will be as determined by the arbitral tribunal.

Law of limitation applicable - Limitation Act, 1963 is applicable. For this purpose, date on which the aggrieved party requests other party to refer the matter to arbitration shall be considered. If on that date, the claim is barred under Limitation Act, the arbitration cannot continue. [section 43(2)]. If Arbitration award is set aside by Court, time spent in arbitration will be excluded for purpose of Limitation Act. [so that case in court or fresh arbitration can start].

Flexibility in respect of procedure, place and language - Arbitral Tribunal has full powers to decide the procedure to be followed, unless parties agree on the procedure to be followed. [section 19(3)]. The Tribunal also has powers to determine the admissibility, relevance, materiality and weight of any evidence. [section 19(4)]. Place of arbitration will be decided by mutual agreement. However if the parties do not agree to the place, the same will be decided by tribunal. [section 20]. Similarly, language to be used in arbitral proceedings can be mutually agreed. Otherwise, Arbitral Tribunal can decide. [section 22].

Submission of statement of claim and defence - The claimant should submit statement of claims, points of issue and relief or remedy sought. The respondent shall state his defence in respect of these particulars. All relevant documents must be submitted. Such claim or defence can be amended or supplemented any time [section 23].

Hearings and written proceedings - After submission of documents and defence, unless the parties agree otherwise, the Arbitral Tribunal can decide whether there will be oral hearing or proceedings can be conducted on the basis of documents and other materials. However, if one of the parties requests, the hearing shall be oral. Sufficient advance notice of hearing should be given to both the parties. [section 24]. [Thus, unless one party requests, oral hearing is not compulsory].

Settlement during arbitration - It is permissible for parties to arrive at mutual settlement even when arbitration is proceeding. In fact, even the Tribunal can make efforts to encourage mutual settlement. If parties settle the dispute by mutual agreement, the arbitration shall be terminated. However, if both parties and the Arbitral Tribunal agree, the settlement can be recorded in the form of an arbitral award on agreed terms. Such Arbitral Award shall have the same force as any other Arbitral Award. [section 30].

Arbitral Award - Decision of Arbitral Tribunal is termed as 'Arbitral Award'. Arbitrator can decide the dispute ex aequo et bono (In justice and in good faith) if both the parties expressly authorise him to do so. [section 28(2)]. The decision of Arbitral Tribunal will be by majority. The arbitral award shall be in writing and signed by the members of the tribunal. [section 29]. The award must be in writing and signed by the members of Arbitral Tribunal. [section 31(1)].. It must state the reasons for the award unless the parties have agreed that no reason for the award is to be given. [section 31(3)]. The award should be dated and place where it is made should be mentioned. Copy of award should be given to each party. Tribunal can make interim award also. [section 31(6)].

Cost of Arbitration - Cost of arbitration means reasonable cost relating to fees and expenses of arbitrators and witnesses, legal fees and expenses, administration fees of the institution supervising the arbitration and other expenses in connection with arbitral proceedings. The tribunal can decide the cost and share of each party. [section 31(8)]. If the parties refuse to pay the costs, the Arbitral Tribunal may refuse to deliver its award. In such case, any party can approach Court. The Court will ask for deposit from the parties and on such deposit, the award will be delivered by the Tribunal. Then Court will decide the costs of arbitration and shall pay the same to Arbitrators. Balance, if any, will be refunded to the party. [section 39].

Intervention by Court - One of the major defects of earlier arbitration law was that the party could access court almost at every stage of arbitration - right from appointment of arbitrator to implementation of final award. Thus, the defending party could approach court at various stages and stall the proceedings. Now, approach to court has been drastically curtailed. In some cases, if an objection is raised by the party, the decision on that objection can be given by Arbitral Tribunal itself. After the decision, the arbitration proceedings are continued and the aggrieved party can approach Court only after Arbitral Award is made. Appeal to court is now only on restricted grounds. Of course, Tribunal cannot be given unlimited and uncontrolled powers and supervision of Courts cannot be totally eliminated.

Arbitration Act has over-riding effect - Section 5 of Act clarifies that notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, in matters governed by the Act, the judicial authority can intervene only as provided in this Act and not under any other Act..

Conciliation - Part III of the Act makes provision for conciliation proceedings. In conciliation proceedings, there is no agreement for arbitration. In fact, conciliation can be done even if there is arbitration agreement. The conciliator only brings parties together and tries to solve the dispute using his good offices. The conciliator has no authority to give any award. He only helps parties in arriving at a mutually accepted settlement. After such agreement they may draw and sign a written settlement agreement. It will be signed by the conciliator. However after the settlement agreement is signed by both the parties and the conciliator, it has the same status and effect as if it is an arbitral award. Conciliation is the amicable settlement of disputes between the parties, with the help of a conciliator.

Offer for conciliation - The conciliation proceedings can start when one of the parties makes a written request to other to conciliate, briefly identifying the dispute. The conciliation can start only if other party accepts in writing the invitation to conciliate. Unless there is written acceptance, conciliation cannot commence. If the other party does not reply within 30 days, the offer for conciliation can be treated as rejected. [section 62] All matters of a civil nature or breach of contract or disputes of movable or immovable property can be referred to conciliation. However, matters of criminal nature, illegal transactions, matrimonial matters like divorce suit etc. cannot be referred to conciliation.

Enforcement of Foreign Awards - The foreign awards which can be enforced in India are as follows : - (a) New York convention award (made after 11th October, 1960) (b) Geneva convention award - made after 28th July, 1924, but before the concerned Government signed the New York convention. Since most of the countries have signed New York convention, normally, New York convention awards are enforceable in India. New York convention was drafted and kept in United Nations for signature of member countries on 21st December, 1958. Each country became party to the convention on the date on which it signed the convention.

Party which intends to enforce a foreign award has to produce the arbitral award and agreement of arbitration [original or its certified copy] to the district court having jurisdiction over the subject matter of the award. [section 47]. The enforcement of award can be refused by court only in cases specified in section 48. Otherwise, the foreign award is enforceable through court as if it is a decree of the court. [section 49]. If the court declines to enforce the arbitral award, appeal can be made to the court where appeal normally lies from the district court. However, no further appeal can be made (except appeal to Supreme Court) - (section 50). [Probably, the aggrieved party may be able to approach International Court of Justice, as the convention is an international convention, signed by many of the member countries].

One advantage of foreign award, according to foreign parties, is that Indian courts come into picture only at the time of implementation of award. The courts can refuse to implement the award only on limited grounds.